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768 lines
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<title>Material Global Regularities</title>
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<meta name="author" content="Amr Gharbeia">
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font color="#993366"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>M<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADgAAAAWCAMAAACi/q9qAAAAYFBMVEX////38PDv4ODn0NDjx5vfwMDWu5LXsLDMmZnHkJC/gIC3cHCxZE6vYGCwY02mUFCeQECZMzNVSzqOICCGEBA5Mid+AAArJR0cGRMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABgiJqlAAAAz0lEQVR4nO2S0Q7CIAxFcbVuK+I6wer+/0ct22S4yBL3ZuJ9IKSnB0qCOZZyGzTXIjZFcnoMw/20JZ7NrkRRvs8PioHDvJTifdq2/SReVGRDImQ4QeSV6NwbSyJCEIwVh6hn+KrRNTRIOgR58sKJrURrnY0VHbd2EsDqHlha7TS1ikQvthIDQIgVT1jRBPuKqEFtivNFMWOLGIlWfNWNPePlwMz9IuYsE6fhGUTi87DTJx7UysTEPonSANYKO9BKDwiUjTqzXNz1Af7iprgnT7zXSlPiJUYwAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="OdkC20" align="right" hspace="5" width="56" height="22" border="0">aterial
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Global Regularities. </b></font></font>The second law of
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thermodynamics, like the first, is stated as a regularity about the
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change in a total quantity that holds of closed region of space: the
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total entropy cannot decrease, though it may increase and usually
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does until it is maximum. It is also possible to explain the second
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law of thermodynamics ontologically, given that matter obeys the
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basic laws of physics. Once again, it an ontological effect that
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space has on the world because space, like matter, is a substance
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enduring through time and it contains all the bits of matter. Unlike
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the explanation of the conservation of matter, however, the
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explanation of the law of entropy depends not only on the principle
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of local motion, but also on matter having the more specific nature
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described by the laws of physics, whose truth was explained in
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<font face="Arial, sans-serif">Contingent laws</font>. The reason is
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that there are geometrical aspects about the various forms of matter
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involved, and thus, not only does the wholeness of space require that
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all their local changes add up over time, but the structure of space
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requires the motion and interaction of the bits of matter to add up
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in a certain way geometrically.</font></font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US">The
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first and second laws of thermodynamics.</span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">
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The spatial and material global regularities made their appearance in
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physics as the first and second laws of thermodynamics. These laws
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were originally formulated to describe certain phenomena that were
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discovered in the development of steam engines. Physicists knew that
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steam engines could extract mechanical work from heat energy, but
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when they recognized that the total energy in a closed system does
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not change (the first law of thermodynamics), they had to admit that
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only some of the energy in such a system could be used to do
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mechanical work, for a closed system could change in ways that make
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it unable to do work. They knew that what makes it possible to
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extract mechanical work from the energy contained in such a system is
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a flow of heat from high temperature regions to regions with a lower
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temperature. The energy that is available to do work was called “free
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energy” (or “usable mechanical energy”). Thus, they recognized
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that, although the total energy in a closed system does not change,
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the free energy does. The free energy can decline and usually does. A
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quantity was introduced as a measure of the portion of the total
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energy in the system that could </span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><i>not
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</i></span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">be
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used to do mechanical work. They called it “entropy”. Thus, in
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these terms, the second law of thermodynamics holds that the entropy
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in any closed system never decreases. It may increase, and usually
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does, stopping only when it becomes maximum. But it never decreases.
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What decreases as entropy increases is free energy. The notion that
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there is a form of energy that declines, even though energy is
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conserved, was puzzling. And though it was discovered by thinking
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about steam engines, the second law of thermodynamics was eventually
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recognized to hold for systems of all kinds. The law of entropy
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increase is universally true, holding everywhere (except possibly for
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the origin of the universe in a big bang or the alternative to the
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big bang to be proposed in </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/LoOtkCaLeCosD.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#0000ff"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Cosmology</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">).
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</span></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The free
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energy available in a system has something to do with “order”,
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but it has never been very clear what order is in general or how it
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makes energy free.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote1anc" href="#sdendnote1sym"><sup>i</sup></a></sup>
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In the case of steam engines and heat engines generally it is clear
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what the relevant order is. It comes down to the temperature
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differences between parts of a system and the quantities of heat each
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contains, for the flow of heat between them is what makes it possible
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to extract mechanical energy. But when the law of entropy is
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generalized to cover systems of all kinds, it is less clear what the
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nature of the order is. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It is,
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however, possible to explain order of all kinds in an intuitively
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clear way, if we take the wholeness of space into account as an
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ontological cause of global regularities, along with matter as
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contained by space. Energy is, in our terms, a form of matter, the
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same stuff that accounts for the rest mass of material objects,
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though there are several, basically different forms of energy—kinetic
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energy and the energy due to forces, both potential and actual
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(especially, photons). What makes energy free is, as we shall see, a
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geometrical aspect of these forms of matter and how they are
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contained in a region of space, for there are regularities about how
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such geometrical properties change over time. Showing that these
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global regularities follow from spatiomaterialism is, therefore, an
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ontological explanation of why the first and second laws of
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thermodynamics are true. It will require not only the material global
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regularities, but also the structural global regularities (to be
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discussed next). However, not only will that prove their ontological
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necessity, but it will also make clear what these regularities are
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all about in their full generality, including the way in which free
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energy depends on order.</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Two
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global regularities are involved in making the second law of
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thermodynamics true according to this ontological explanation. The
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first is <i>the tendency of potential energy to become kinetic energy
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or photons </i>(or the tendency toward kinetic energy), and the other
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is <i>the tendency of dynamic processes to become random </i>(or the
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tendency toward randomness). Both are ways in which the specific
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nature of matter works together with space as an ontological cause to
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constitute a global regularity. But they work together, because the
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first is usually the source of the situations in which the second
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global regularity is exhibited. Let us consider each in turn and then
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see how they are combined.</font></font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: -3.18cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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" name="GlbRM" align="bottom" width="710" height="288" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC21" align="right" hspace="5" width="77" height="29" border="0">he
|
||
tendency toward kinetic energy. </font>The first global regularity
|
||
included in the second law of thermodynamics is the <i>tendency of
|
||
potential energy to become kinetic energy (and photons)</i>. The very
|
||
name, “potential” energy, suggests this tendency, because
|
||
potential energy is <i>actualized </i>by becoming kinetic energy
|
||
(and/or photons). Though it is also possible for kinetic energy to
|
||
become potential energy, the tendency is <i>toward </i>kinetic
|
||
energy, because potential energy that has become actualized is less
|
||
likely to restore itself. In order to see why, we need only contrast
|
||
the natures of potential energy and kinetic energy. The same kind of
|
||
contrast also shows that potential energy tends to be lost to other
|
||
kinds of energy, such as photons, but to keep it simple, let us focus
|
||
on kinetic energy for now. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">When
|
||
potential energy becomes kinetic energy, the kinetic energy comes
|
||
from the forces that material objects exert on one another. According
|
||
to our ontological explanation of the basic laws of physics,
|
||
potential energy is actually a form of matter that constitutes the
|
||
force fields themselves (and whose quantity is already counted in the
|
||
rest masses of the objects exerting the forces). A force is called a
|
||
field because its (potential) effects are distributed in the space
|
||
around the object imposing the force, with a geometrical structure
|
||
centered on the location of the object. That force field is explained
|
||
ontologically by a form of matter that coincides with all those parts
|
||
of space at once, and thus, the matter has a geometrical structure.
|
||
The matter making up the force is spread out continuously in space,
|
||
varying with the strength of the force it exerts. That geometrical
|
||
structure means that there is a wholeness about the energy when is
|
||
still potential, because each part contributes to the total potential
|
||
energy (and, thus, to the total rest mass of the material object
|
||
exerting the force) by having a definite location relative to every
|
||
other part. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Kinetic
|
||
energy, by contrast, is a form of matter that is not only attached to
|
||
the material object, but also located at its center of mass. Kinetic
|
||
matter, as we are calling it, has a location that enables it to
|
||
connect the material object to space in a way that makes the object
|
||
move across space in some direction at a certain speed. But that
|
||
means that kinetic energy (or kinetic matter) lacks any inherent
|
||
geometrical structure, except for the location of the object and its
|
||
direction in the region where it exists. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Given
|
||
that potential energy has an inherent geometrical structure and that
|
||
kinetic energy does not, we can see why there is a tendency of
|
||
potential energy to become kinetic energy in the motion and
|
||
interaction of material objects by considering what is involved in
|
||
the conversion between them. In order to convert potential energy
|
||
into kinetic energy, more than one material object must be involved,
|
||
because kinetic energy is actualized as material objects are
|
||
accelerated by the forces they exert on one another. Such
|
||
acceleration can occur only when the objects are spatially related so
|
||
that the forces they exert on one another are able to accelerate
|
||
them, and when they are a source of much energy, they are rather
|
||
special. Objects at rest, for example, can acquire kinetic energy
|
||
from attractive forces only when they are separated by a distance
|
||
that can be closed by their acceleration (and they can acquire
|
||
kinetic energy from repulsive forces only when they are located near
|
||
one another and can move away). When objects are accelerated,
|
||
however, the objects change their locations in space, and that
|
||
changes the capacity of the force to accelerate them, because it
|
||
decreases the special kind of spatial relationship needed to
|
||
accelerate them. The potential energy has been consumed, and in its
|
||
place the objects have some kinetic energy. The kinetic energy
|
||
actually comes from the matter constituting the force field, and that
|
||
is possible because the force field itself has changed in a way that
|
||
requires less matter to constitute it. Thus, what has happened is
|
||
that some of the matter that had an inherent geometrical structure
|
||
has been extracted and has become matter that is located with the
|
||
objects’ centers of mass. The matter’s loss of inherent
|
||
geometrical structure is what is responsible for the temporally
|
||
asymmetric tendency, for that makes it a form of matter that can be
|
||
divided up among many other material objects as they interact. In
|
||
particular, according to Newton’s laws of motion, when an object
|
||
with high kinetic energy interacts slower moving objects, some of its
|
||
kinetic energy is carried away by the other objects, being divided up
|
||
among them.. It is not very likely that other objects will ever move
|
||
in just the right ways to restore the special spatial relation that
|
||
accelerated the object in the first place. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">For
|
||
example, if an object falls toward a planet because of the
|
||
gravitational forces they exert on one another, it loses its
|
||
potential energy as it approaches the planet and it gains kinetic
|
||
energy. But as it collides with other material objects, either on its
|
||
way down or when it runs into the earth, it gives up kinetic energy,
|
||
and though it may rebound, much of its kinetic energy will be lost to
|
||
other objects (and to overcoming the forces that may be involved in
|
||
its fragmentation or deformation). The system will never restore the
|
||
object’s potential energy. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
be sure, the conversion can work the opposite way. When objects
|
||
exerting forces on one another have accelerated one another and lost
|
||
potential energy, they have also acquired kinetic energy, and that
|
||
can restore potential energy. Objects with kinetic energy restore
|
||
potential energy when their retreat from one another is slowed by
|
||
attractive forces (and when their approach to one another is slowed
|
||
by repulsive forces). Indeed, a system involving only two material
|
||
objects may simply go on converting energy between kinetic and
|
||
potential forms indefinitely, such as a planet in an elliptical orbit
|
||
around its star. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
reason there is a tendency toward kinetic energy is that other
|
||
material objects are usually involved. According to Newton’s laws
|
||
of motion, when objects with kinetic energy interact with one
|
||
another, they exchange kinetic energy in a way that tends to equalize
|
||
the kinetic energy among them. Thus, objects with unusually large
|
||
amounts of kinetic energy see their kinetic energy divided up into
|
||
smaller bits of kinetic energy that subsequently move around
|
||
separately from one another. Kinetic energy is no longer moving
|
||
objects in the right locations in the right directions at the right
|
||
times to restore the unusually large potential energy from which it
|
||
derived. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">For
|
||
example, even in a pendulum, which continually converts potential
|
||
energy to kinetic energy and back again as it rises and falls in the
|
||
gravitational field, this tendency to kinetic energy cannot be
|
||
avoided. The bob also loses kinetic energy as it collides with
|
||
particles of air and as it stretches and relaxes its tether, and it
|
||
never restores all the potential energy and eventually comes to a
|
||
stop. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are,
|
||
of course, processes in which kinetic energy and potential energy are
|
||
continually being converted into one another, such as those involved
|
||
in elastic collisions or a plasma of charged particles, but the
|
||
potential energy in those processes is not a source of free energy,
|
||
but just part of a random interaction that is the subject of the
|
||
other global regularity, as we shall see. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
wholeness of the space containing the objects and their two forms of
|
||
energy is what requires all the motion and interaction of bits of
|
||
matter in the region to add up over time. That is how space causes
|
||
all the global regularities. But in the case of the tendency to
|
||
kinetic energy, space plays an additional role, which depends on its
|
||
geometrical structure. There is a geometrical structure inherent in
|
||
potential energy, and since it is superimposed on the uniform
|
||
structure of space, there is a geometrical aspect to how the motion
|
||
and interaction of the material objects adds up over time. A region
|
||
with a large amount of potential energy must have a rather special
|
||
geometrical structure, because potential energy exists in the forces
|
||
that objects exert and it can be converted to kinetic energy only
|
||
when objects have kinds of relative locations in the force fields
|
||
they impose that can accelerate them. There is a tendency to kinetic
|
||
energy, because when it becomes kinetic energy, is a form of matter
|
||
that is located with the center of the material object’s rest mass,
|
||
thereby losing that kind of its geometrical structure inherent in
|
||
potential energy. It moves across space with the material object and
|
||
can be transferred to other objects by collisions, which tends, as we
|
||
shall see, toward randomness. Thus, the geometrical structure
|
||
inherent in potential energy tends to be erased from the region. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
other words, when potential energy becomes kinetic, matter that did
|
||
exist as part of the whole force field surrounding the material
|
||
objects comes to be kinetic matter located with their centers of
|
||
mass, and that makes it possible for the matter to be divided up
|
||
further by collisions with other material objects. Once the matter is
|
||
divided up, it is unlikely that the objects will have just the right
|
||
speeds in the right directions at just the right locations and just
|
||
the right times to put the objects back in the same spatial relation
|
||
that gave them potential energy in the first place. Indeed, it is
|
||
unlikely they will put any object in any similar significant source
|
||
of potential energy, for that would require assembling separate bits
|
||
of matter as a form of matter (a force being exerted) whose inherent
|
||
geometrical structure is testimony to its unity as a single bit of
|
||
matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
examples used here are based on gravitation,<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote2anc" href="#sdendnote2sym"><sup>ii</sup></a></sup>
|
||
but it should be noted that the same holds for electromagnetism and
|
||
short range forces. When protons are combined randomly with
|
||
electrons, their long-range attractive forces bind them together as
|
||
hydrogen atoms, and though the potential energy may take the form of
|
||
photons, instead of or as well as kinetic energy, the photons also
|
||
lose their energy as they are scattered by other objects with
|
||
electric charges and the geometrical structure inherent in potential
|
||
energy is still broken up into many smaller bits. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Much the
|
||
same happens in the case of short-range forces, though the spatial
|
||
relations required to actualize potential energy are different. In
|
||
nuclear fusion reactions, for example, nuclei must collide with
|
||
enough energy to overcome an initial repulsion by the strong force,
|
||
for otherwise the short-range attractive force does not reach far
|
||
enough to bind them together. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Likewise,
|
||
atoms (or groups of atoms) that exert attractive forces on one
|
||
another may be separated too far by the molecular structures of which
|
||
they are parts for their forces binds them together, until the local
|
||
temperature is high enough for collisions to put them momentarily
|
||
within the effective range. This is what happens when a match is used
|
||
to start combustion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Likewise in
|
||
fission reactions, the potential energy of repulsion between clusters
|
||
of positive charges in a heavy nucleus becomes kinetic when they fly
|
||
apart, but first the nucleus must be made unstable by the absorption
|
||
of a neutron. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
these cases the geometrical structure inherent in potential energy is
|
||
more internal to the material objects, but that structure is still
|
||
part of the geometrical structure of matter in the region, for there
|
||
must be conditions in the region that will release it.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC22" align="right" hspace="5" width="70" height="29" border="0">he
|
||
tendency toward randomness. </font>What tends to become random is the
|
||
motion and interaction of bits of matter in a closed or isolated
|
||
region, or what may also be called “dynamic processes.” In the
|
||
dynamic processes used to think about this phenomenon, material
|
||
objects are assumed to have repulsive forces by which elastic
|
||
collisions keep them from occupying the same places at the same time.
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In elastic
|
||
collisions, material objects keep moving and interacting, because no
|
||
kinetic energy is lost or absorbed by their parts when they interact.
|
||
Force fields and conversions to potential energy are actually
|
||
involved in these interactions, but they can be ignored here, because
|
||
there is no net change and we want to consider what happens to their
|
||
kinetic energy and other properties of the kinetic matter attached to
|
||
material objects.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
traditional model for the tendency to randomness is the motion and
|
||
collisions of billiard balls in a box. Once again, it is being
|
||
contained by space that requires their motion and interaction to add
|
||
up over time, and all that is needed to see why there is a tendency
|
||
to randomness is to consider <i>how </i>motion and interaction in
|
||
accordance with Newton’s laws of motion add up in space over time.
|
||
There is, once again, a geometrical structure about the region that
|
||
gets wiped out.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
a spatiomaterial world, everything happens by the motion and
|
||
interaction of bits of matter, and in this case, it is extremely
|
||
simple, because the bits of matter are all material objects with rest
|
||
mass and kinetic energy (that is, the kinetic matter attached to
|
||
material objects). There is no geometrical structure about the
|
||
material objects in the region except their locations, speeds and
|
||
direction of motion. These three properties are the initial
|
||
conditions that would have to be described along with Newton’s laws
|
||
of nature, according to the D-N model of explanation, in order to
|
||
predict and explain what happens. They are all part of the efficient
|
||
cause that determines what happens in the region. But it is not
|
||
necessary, or even relevant, to derive mathematically what happens in
|
||
detail in particular cases. If we consider the material objects
|
||
relative to the space that contains them, we can see why their motion
|
||
and interaction becomes randomized before long, if they aren’t
|
||
already, because it is due to a geometrical aspect that we can
|
||
understand, when we see them against the background of space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
wholeness of space is what requires the motion and interaction of the
|
||
bits of matter located in the region to add up as time passes, but
|
||
the structure of the space within the region is what determines how
|
||
the local changes add up. The objects have locations, speeds and
|
||
directions at any moment that determine a geometrical structure
|
||
relative to space, and when they move and interact according to
|
||
Newton’s laws of motion, local changes add up in space over time in
|
||
a way that erases that geometrical structure by evening out the
|
||
spatial distribution of all three of the kinds of efficient causes
|
||
that are relevant.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
tendency can be seen in each of the kinds of relevant efficient
|
||
causes. That is, (1) the rest masses of material objects become
|
||
spread out evenly throughout the region of space, (2) their kinetic
|
||
energies become evenly distributed in space, and (3) their directions
|
||
of momentum also tend toward an even spatial distribution. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.18cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: -0.64cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">(1)
|
||
If there are more material objects moving and interacting in one part
|
||
of the region of space than in another, as when a gas of molecules is
|
||
released in a vacuum, they will spread themselves out, because, other
|
||
things being equal, objects at any boundary between highly and lowly
|
||
populated regions are more likely to be turned back by collisions on
|
||
one side than on the other. Hence, material objects will tend to move
|
||
toward the less populated region until they are all evenly
|
||
distributed in space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">(The
|
||
diffusion of the molecules of one gas or liquid that is released into
|
||
another works similarly, because when the objects colliding have
|
||
different rest masses, the directions of the motion of less massive
|
||
objects tend to change more, until the more massive objects are
|
||
evenly distributed among them. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">(2)
|
||
Randomness may still not prevail, however, when rest masses are
|
||
evenly distributed in space, because objects in some areas may be
|
||
moving faster than those in other areas, for example, when there are
|
||
hot spots or cold spots in the region. However, such spatial
|
||
unevenness in their kinetic energy is also evened out, because
|
||
elastic collisions of slow-moving with fast-moving rest masses tend
|
||
to speed up the former and slow down the latter. That is the only
|
||
what that both kinetic energy and momentum can be conserved. Kinetic
|
||
energy tends to be divided up among the colliding objects. Thus, at
|
||
the boundary between regions of different temperature, symmetrical
|
||
elastic collisions will be so located and oriented in space that
|
||
kinetic energy is communicated to the less energetic regions (that
|
||
is, by conduction of heat). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">(3)
|
||
Motion and interaction may still not be random, even when rest masses
|
||
and their kinetic energies are distributed evenly in space, because
|
||
their speeds may be mostly in the same direction, as in a wind. But
|
||
any such unevenness in the distribution of direction of motion among
|
||
the objects also tends to be evened out, because when kinetic
|
||
energies are evenly distributed within and outside the wind (their
|
||
temperatures are the same), the wind tends to be invaded by objects
|
||
moving perpendicularly to it. Objects making up the wind have more of
|
||
their kinetic energy tied up in moving in the direction of the wind
|
||
than objects outside the wind, and thus, objects approaching the wind
|
||
perpendicularly are less likely to be turned back by collisions than
|
||
those traveling in other directions (that is, the pressure exerted
|
||
sideways by molecules of the wind will be less than elsewhere in the
|
||
region, called the Bernoulli effect). As molecules invade the wind,
|
||
they collide with molecules making up the wind, which tends to make
|
||
their directions more perpendicular to the wind, and such reactions
|
||
are more likely until the directions of momentum of all the objects
|
||
in the region are evenly distributed.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
result is that the rest masses of the objects, their kinetic
|
||
energies, and their directions of motion all tend to become evenly
|
||
distributed in the region. That is the tendency toward randomness,
|
||
and this distribution can be described statistically. But since heat
|
||
is just the kinetic energy of the molecules in these simple cases, it
|
||
is a tendency of kinetic energy to become evenly distributed heat,
|
||
equalizing the temperature everywhere. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
tendency continues to hold when we take various complications into
|
||
account. For example, collisions among real molecules are not
|
||
necessarily elastic, because they can absorb some of the kinetic
|
||
energy being exchanged. But as the kinetic energy is evened out among
|
||
the objects, so is the energy absorbed by their parts. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">And though
|
||
material objects also emit and absorb photons, the spatial
|
||
distributions of the locations, directions, and energies of the
|
||
photons in the region also tends to be evened out by their
|
||
interactions with the material objects, assuming that photons are
|
||
reflected back and the region is closed. There are no kinds of
|
||
interactions that can prevent the randomness.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
tendency toward randomness is that aspect of the law of entropy that
|
||
is described as heat flowing from regions of high temperature to
|
||
regions lower temperature, like water from high altitudes to lower
|
||
altitudes. And since kinetic energy is a form of matter, according to
|
||
this ontological explanation, it can even seen as vindicating the
|
||
belief that heat is a “caloric fluid” that exists in addition to
|
||
the rest masses of the objects involved. It is a form of matter that
|
||
flows from hot regions to cold. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is nothing very original about this explanation of the tendency to
|
||
randomness. These effects are obvious to anyone who thinks about
|
||
concrete examples of this tendency. What is new is recognizing that
|
||
the tendency depends not only on the nature of matter (that is, the
|
||
basic laws of physics), but also on the nature of the space with
|
||
parts of which all the bits of matter coincide.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Our
|
||
ontological foundation entitles us to take space into account as an
|
||
ontological cause in explaining regularities about change. The
|
||
wholeness of space is what requires the motion and interaction of all
|
||
the objects to add up over time, as in all global regularities. But
|
||
how they add up over time also depends on the structure of space, for
|
||
it is only against the background of space that the causally relevant
|
||
factors determine a geometrical structure. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is the lack of evenness in the spatial distribution of one or more of
|
||
the relevant efficient causes (their locations, kinetic energies, or
|
||
directions of momentum) that makes the state non-random. And in each
|
||
case, a geometrical structure about the non-random state is what
|
||
causes the tendency toward randomness. It is the structure of space
|
||
that determines where their motions will lead them and which objects
|
||
they will interact with next. And we have seen how the unevenness in
|
||
the distribution of the causally relevant factors puts certain
|
||
objects are in asymmetrical situations which will eventually even out
|
||
the spatial distribution of these factors. Thus, the temporal
|
||
asymmetry of the second law of thermodynamics is a result, not only
|
||
of the basic laws of physics, but also of how the motion and elastic
|
||
collisions of material objects obeying those laws <i>add up over time
|
||
because they are contained by space</i>.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Thus,
|
||
when we take space into account, there is no mystery about why there
|
||
is a temporal direction to change in which the kinetic energy of
|
||
objects in non-random states winds up as heat evenly distributed in
|
||
the region. The geometrical structure involved in any unevenness
|
||
about the distribution of the three relevant factors is what causes
|
||
those aspects of matter to become evened out in space, that is, more
|
||
like the structure of space containing them.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>The
|
||
second law of thermodynamics. </b></i>This ontological explanation of
|
||
the second law of thermodynamics reveals that two different global
|
||
regularities are involved: a tendency of potential energy to become
|
||
kinetic energy (and/or photons) and a tendency of kinetic energy
|
||
(and/or photons) to become evenly distributed heat. In both cases,
|
||
there is a geometrical structure about the region that tends to be
|
||
wiped out by how objects move and interact. One is the geometrical
|
||
structure that the region has because it contains the geometrical
|
||
structures inherent in the potential energy of forces (which can
|
||
become kinetic energy). The other is the nonrandom distribution of
|
||
causally relevant factors in the region (which tends toward the
|
||
randomness of evenly distributed heat). Both kinds of geometrical
|
||
structures tend to go out of existence, as we have seen, because that
|
||
is how the motion and interaction of the bits of matter adds up over
|
||
time because of the uniform structure of the space containing them.
|
||
In one case, when the energy of position becomes energy of motion,
|
||
matter with an inherent geometrical structure is replaced by a form
|
||
of matter that can be broken up into different pieces. And in the
|
||
other case, when any of the causally relevant factors is unevenly
|
||
distributed, that is a geometrical structure in the region that tends
|
||
to wipe itself out over time, with kinetic energy winding up as heat
|
||
evenly distributed in the region. When geometrical structures of
|
||
either kind go out of existence, only very special situations can
|
||
bring them back into existence. And these two tendencies are
|
||
connected, because the tendency to kinetic energy supplies nonrandom
|
||
dynamic processes that tend to become random. Together, they make up
|
||
a temporally asymmetrical change in the region as a whole. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Given how
|
||
both global regularities involve the disappearance of a special kind
|
||
of geometrical structure in the region as time passes, it may be
|
||
useful to suggest that the law of entropy increase can be seen as a
|
||
kind of four dimensional geometrical structure in the region as a
|
||
whole. In its most complete expression, the geometrical structure
|
||
inherent in potential energy becomes the geometrical structure
|
||
inherent in nonrandom distributions of causally relevant factors,
|
||
which in turn becomes the lack of any salient geometrical structure
|
||
inherent in the randomness of evenly distributed heat. At the later
|
||
edge of this four dimensional structure, the bits of matter have the
|
||
kind of geometrical structure that is most like the structure of the
|
||
space containing it. It is as if matter in the region were coming to
|
||
mirror the uniform structure of space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
explanation of the second law of thermodynamics solves a puzzle about
|
||
the reduction of the second law of thermodynamics to physics. The law
|
||
of entropy seems to resist reduction to the laws of physics, because
|
||
it describes a regularity about change that is asymmetrical in time,
|
||
whereas the laws of physics describing how the material objects
|
||
interact are all time-symmetrical. The temporal asymmetry of the law
|
||
of entropy comes, however, not from the laws of physics by
|
||
themselves, but from the forms of matter they describe having
|
||
geometrical aspects that are casually relevant in how local changes
|
||
adds up in space over time. Both tendencies involved in the
|
||
explanation of the law of entropy are a result of how geometrical
|
||
structures about the matter involved are efficient cause of their own
|
||
extinction. That solves the problem. (See <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Change:
|
||
Epistemological philosophy of causation: Second law of
|
||
thermodynamics</font>.) </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>The
|
||
thermodynamic flow of matter. </b></i>If we look at the second law of
|
||
thermodynamics in terms of matter, the two tendencies can also be
|
||
seen as a “thermodynamic flow of matter” from potential energy to
|
||
evenly distributed heat. This is a flow of matter in a certain
|
||
“direction” through a series of forms of matter. The matter
|
||
starts off as part of the rest masses of the material objects
|
||
involved, for matter in that form is what constitutes the forces that
|
||
the objects exert on one another. When the objects have spatial
|
||
relations in which their forces can accelerate one another, it is
|
||
potential energy. And when potential energy is actualized, the matter
|
||
takes the form of kinetic matter, which lacks any inherent
|
||
geometrical structure, since it is a form matter that is located at
|
||
the material object’s center of mass. And since interactions among
|
||
material objects tend to equalize their kinetic energy (and other
|
||
causally relevant factors), kinetic matter tends to become randomized
|
||
as heat and evenly distributed in space as heat. Since matter flows
|
||
through these forms in only one direction, however, matter winds up
|
||
as evenly distributed heat, that is, with higher entropy in the
|
||
region.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
thermodynamic flow can also involve potential energy becoming
|
||
photons, but they are merely another route to evenly distributed
|
||
heat. The photons interact with the material objects and become
|
||
randomized for much the same reasons. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is to
|
||
characterize the global regularities described by the second law of
|
||
thermodynamics as if the processes followed a direct path to evenly
|
||
distributed heat of increasing entropy. But the thermodynamic flow of
|
||
matter may include twists and turns in which some of the kinetic
|
||
energy becomes potential energy in other forms only to be released
|
||
again as kinetic energy before finally turning into heat that is then
|
||
evenly distributed in space. As we shall see, such transformations
|
||
between potential and kinetic energy are how machines use this kind
|
||
of matter, as free energy, to do work. Similarly, though nonrandom
|
||
distributions of the three causally relevant factors becomes evenly
|
||
distributed heat, it may be used as free energy to do work, as in
|
||
heat engines, which may create potential energy and give some objects
|
||
high kinetic energy, before it becomes evenly distributed heat. These
|
||
complications will be considered when we take up structural
|
||
causation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>The
|
||
transformation of free energy into entropy. </b></i>To sum this up in
|
||
more familiar terms, at the most general level, according to the
|
||
second law of thermodynamics, what is happening in any closed or
|
||
isolated region of space is the transformation of free energy into
|
||
entropy. <i>Free energy </i>is all the energy in the region that has
|
||
not yet become evenly distributed heat, where heat is simply
|
||
randomness in the motion and interaction of the simplest physical
|
||
objects that can move relative to one another. And <i>entropy </i>is,
|
||
technically, a measure of how much of the total energy in the region
|
||
exists in the form of evenly distributed heat. The second law of
|
||
thermodynamics, or law of entropy, holds that in a closed or isolated
|
||
system, entropy can increase, but it cannot decrease. That is, all
|
||
the other physical forms of energy (that is, forms of matter) are
|
||
ineluctably becoming evenly distributed heat. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
is the supposedly bleak image of a world made up of matter in motion
|
||
which sees the universe as condemned to a “heat death.” This
|
||
image has traditionally been used to discredit materialism, or at
|
||
least discourage belief in it. But if we consider what it means more
|
||
concretely at the scale of planetary systems, the transformation of
|
||
free energy into entropy is, as we shall see, the fountain of
|
||
everything valuable in the world. Free energy is what makes it
|
||
possible for structural causes to do work, as we shall see next. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
talk of “free energy” is to classify energy by its capacity to be
|
||
used by machines to do work, but concretely, such free energy takes
|
||
many different <i>physical </i>forms. On the scale of a planetary
|
||
system, the richest and most constant source of free energy is the
|
||
star, because such a huge accumulation of mass has a gravitational
|
||
field that contains an enormous amount of potential energy. The
|
||
energy stored in its force field is the source of all the free energy
|
||
that will eventually become evenly distributed heat (except for
|
||
energy from radioactive decay). Its gravitational field constantly
|
||
accelerates bits of matter toward its center. Even inside the star
|
||
itself, the inward acceleration of more distant matter causes a
|
||
pressure that is balanced against the kinetic energy (and photons)
|
||
constituting the random motion and interaction of more centrally
|
||
located particles and their electromagnetic interactions. Indeed, the
|
||
kinetic energy is great enough for the collisions of protons,
|
||
neutrons and small nuclei to bring them within the short range of the
|
||
strong attractive force that they can exert on one another, and as it
|
||
fuses them together, the potential energy of the strong force is
|
||
actualized as kinetic energy and photons, decreasing their rest
|
||
masses. High energy photons (and other particles) escaping at the
|
||
surface of a star radiate outward toward cold, empty space, showing
|
||
the surrounding planets. Since radiation is a form of free energy
|
||
(like kinetic energy before it is randomized), it can be used to do
|
||
work on the planets intercepting it. Not only do photons heat the
|
||
planet, but they supply energy in a form that can drive chemical
|
||
interactions. There is also heat from the tidal forces that planets
|
||
orbiting a star suffer as they rotate on their own axis (and from the
|
||
radioactive decay of particles making up the planets). The energy
|
||
eventually flows through the planets, since planets also lose heat as
|
||
they radiate energy into cold empty space in the form of lower-energy
|
||
photons. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
star’s radiation is, therefore, a form of energy that can be used
|
||
by machines on planets to do work, or free energy. This is the
|
||
setting, as we shall see, for reproductive causation to generate its
|
||
spectacular global regularity. But first we must consider how this
|
||
thermodynamic flow can be used to do work, and that is an effect of
|
||
structural causation.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote1">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote1sym" href="#sdendnote1anc">i</a>
|
||
Talk about free energy as the amount of information contained in
|
||
systems is not helpful, if not misleading. Information is sometimes
|
||
equated with free energy, as does D. Hawkins (1964), and others
|
||
equate it with entropy, as do D. R. Brooks and E. O. Wiley (1988).</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote2">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote2sym" href="#sdendnote2anc">ii</a>
|
||
Although we are treating gravitation as a force of attraction which
|
||
supplies free energy, our ontological explanation of Einstein’s
|
||
general theory of relativity has an implication that might be
|
||
mentioned. Objects that have accelerated under the force of gravity
|
||
are said to acquire kinetic energy, but since they are actually
|
||
being accelerated with the acceleration of the ether, the potential
|
||
energy does not become kinetic matter (and photons) until they crash
|
||
into the center of gravity and join the thermodynamic flow of matter
|
||
toward evenly distributed heat.
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</body>
|
||
</html> |