1356 lines
123 KiB
HTML
1356 lines
123 KiB
HTML
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<html>
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<head>
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<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
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<title>Individual and spiritual self interest</title>
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<meta name="generator" content="LibreOffice 4.2.8.2 (Linux)">
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<meta name="author" content="Amr Gharbeia">
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<meta name="created" content="20010831;0">
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<meta name="changed" content="20150722;230118303176368">
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">I<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCRS09C_19" align="right" hspace="5" width="225" height="19" border="0">ndividual
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and spiritual self interest. </font>The difference between natural
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science and social science (including both the science of individual
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subjects and the science of their social world) is a dichotomy in
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rational culture that occurs within theoretical reason. But there a
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also dichotomy between theoretical and practical reason, and within
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the arguments of practical reason, there is another dichotomy. It
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arises, because reason must guide the behavior of both the spiritual
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animal as a whole and its individual members. This dichotomy mirrors
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the difference between the two parts of social science described
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above (the science of subjects and the science of the social world),
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but it is not reducible to them, because it is concerned with what is
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good for them, not merely explaining their behavior. </font></font></font>
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
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good is what contributes to natural perfection, which is the
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direction of evolutionary change, and thus, at each stage of
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evolution, there is a new way in which things can be good or bad. But
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at the rational spiritual stage, there are three different ways in
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which things can be good or bad, because there are three different
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forms of natural perfection to which things can contribute. I will
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call these ways in which things can be good or bad “interests,”
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because they can all be goals of behavior guided by reason. </font></font></font>
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" name="Dichotomies" align="bottom" width="404" height="300" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Rational
|
||
interest.</i> We have already seen that reason itself has an
|
||
interest, because the evolution of arguments by rational selection is
|
||
change in the direction of the natural perfection of culture. Culture
|
||
is naturally perfect when its arguments discover the true, the good
|
||
and the beautiful (or come as close as possible for arguments at its
|
||
stage). That is how reason contributes to the power of rational
|
||
beings. Thus, things are good or bad for culture or reason. For
|
||
example, what contributes to cultural evolution, such as institutions
|
||
or individual behavior that foster the exchange of arguments and
|
||
promotes their rational selection, is good because it contributes to
|
||
the natural perfection of culture. What is good in this way is in the
|
||
interest of reason itself.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Spiritual
|
||
interest.</i> Culture evolves, however, within rational spiritual
|
||
animals, and spiritual animals themselves evolve by reproductive
|
||
causation in the direction of natural perfection for organisms of
|
||
their kind. As we have seen, spiritual animals impose natural
|
||
selection on themselves by their own reproduction in the harsh form
|
||
of warfare, and as a result, they gradually change in the direction
|
||
of natural perfection for them. Cultural evolution is a trait that
|
||
evolves within them because it enhances their power as rational
|
||
beings to control the conditions that affect their reproduction at
|
||
the social level. Since there is a natural perfection for rational
|
||
spiritual animals, things can be good or bad depending on whether
|
||
they contribute to it or they detract from it. Thus, spiritual
|
||
animals have an interest, which I will call the spiritual interest. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Individual
|
||
interest. </i>There is, however, a distinct natural perfection about
|
||
the individual members of spiritual animals, because the evolution of
|
||
spiritual animals by reproductive causation involves the simultaneous
|
||
evolution of its members by reproductive causation. This has no
|
||
precedent, as we have seen, in the history of biological evolution.
|
||
Though evolution on two levels at once played a role in the evolution
|
||
of prokaryotic life and eukaryotic life, it stopped with the
|
||
evolution of the biological behavior guidance system that made them a
|
||
form of life (though eukaryotes compensated for this by the evolution
|
||
of sexual reproduction). Multicellular animals are not parts of
|
||
spiritual animals in the same way as cells in multicellular animals,
|
||
because the members of spiritual animals continue to impose natural
|
||
selection on themselves by their own sexual reproduction within
|
||
spiritual animals, even as their spiritual animal evolves in a
|
||
parallel way on the social level. Whereas in spiritual animals,
|
||
reproductive causation is at work on both levels, in multicellular
|
||
animals, reproductive causation is at work on only one level of
|
||
biological organization, the multicellular level. (Multicellular
|
||
animals reproduce by constructing an entire new multicellular animal
|
||
from a single fertilized egg cell, and since individual cells
|
||
reproduce only as part of that process of embryological development,
|
||
they do not impose natural selection on themselves at the cellular
|
||
level — though as eukaryotes, sexual reproduction serves a similar
|
||
function.) The simultaneous evolution of organisms by reproductive
|
||
causation on two levels of biological organization implies that
|
||
evolutionary change is in the direction natural perfection at two
|
||
levels of biological organization at once. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since
|
||
reflective subjects impose natural selection on themselves within
|
||
spiritual animals by their own reproduction, they evolve in the
|
||
direction of natural perfection for the multicellular animals who are
|
||
parts of spiritual animals. It is as if membership in spiritual
|
||
animals were their ecological niche and they were adapting to it. But
|
||
since that means individuals change is in the direction of a kind of
|
||
natural perfection, there is a way in which things are good or bad
|
||
for the individuals. What contributes to the natural perfection of
|
||
rational subjects is good for them, and the bad is what detracts for
|
||
their natural perfection. Thus, individuals have an interest as
|
||
individuals, and that is what I mean by individual interest.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">A
|
||
difference between the interest of the individual and the interest of
|
||
the spiritual animal is entailed, therefore, by our ontological
|
||
derivation of reproductive global regularities, because spiritual
|
||
animals are an inevitable stage of evolution. In addition to pursuing
|
||
the interests of reason itself, reflective subjects use reason to
|
||
pursue both the interest of their spiritual animal and their
|
||
individual interest. This is evident on reflection from the point of
|
||
view of the subject, but the nature of reason at the rational
|
||
spiritual stage does not provide any adequate way of explaining the
|
||
relationship between the individual and spiritual interest. Though
|
||
cultures normally assume that spiritual interest has priority over
|
||
individual interest, the only explanations that can be given of it at
|
||
the rational spiritual stage are religious, thereby sewing their
|
||
worldview together by appeal to magic and mystery. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order to
|
||
see what is good and bad for reflective subjects, let us consider
|
||
what ontological philosophy implies about how the reflective subject
|
||
is related to each of these interests that evolve at the rational
|
||
spiritual stage. That is, in what sense are they aspects of self
|
||
interest? </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Rational
|
||
self interest.</i> Reflective subjects have an interest in reason
|
||
insofar as they are producers of culture, participating in the
|
||
process of discovering the true, the good and the beautiful. Those
|
||
goals are inherent in reason itself, because the natural perfection
|
||
of culture is the direction of the evolution of arguments by rational
|
||
selection. And what is exchanged in the process of pursuing those
|
||
goals includes not only theoretical and practical arguments, but also
|
||
what Aristotle would call arguments of “productive reason” (a
|
||
kind of practical reason having to do with the goodness of products
|
||
rather than the goodness of the actions themselves).</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
reflective subjects have a rational interest because they participate
|
||
in cultural evolution, that is merely an interest in knowing, and it
|
||
does not guide their behavior except as participants in cultural
|
||
evolution. What is in the interest of reason is good for them only
|
||
insofar as they are the producers of cultural evolution, that is, as
|
||
individuals considering alternative arguments and rationally
|
||
selecting the most coherent argument. That is a merely cognitive
|
||
interest. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">However,
|
||
reflective subjects can also have an interest in reason that affects
|
||
their behavior in other ways, because they are also consumers of
|
||
culture. Reflective subjects draw on the arguments accumulated as
|
||
culture to judge what is good in the particular situations they face
|
||
and, thus, attain their goals through rational action. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
capacity to use reason to guide behavior is not, however, merely a
|
||
means to goals that individual’s already have. It changes their
|
||
nature, as we shall see. It gives reflective subjects new goals in
|
||
addition to those that come from being participants in cultural
|
||
evolution, because it increases their power to pursue goals
|
||
generally. Thus, the maximum holistic power of rational subjects is
|
||
greater than that of subjects who use reason merely to pursue the
|
||
goals of their animal behavior. The power of reason transforms the
|
||
reflective subject into a rational being, that is, a reflective
|
||
subject whose behavior is guided by reason not merely in the
|
||
selection of means, but also in the selection of goals. And
|
||
individuals can pursue goals beyond what controls the conditions that
|
||
affect their reproduction. Thus, what is good or bad for the
|
||
individual depends on what contributes to their natural perfection as
|
||
rational beings, and that includes both an individual interest and a
|
||
spiritual interest (and, in both cases, both necessary and optional
|
||
goals). That is, as we shall see, their <i>self interest </i>as
|
||
rational beings. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
transforms reflective subjects into rational beings is submitting to
|
||
reason. Reflection enables the linguistic animal to represent the
|
||
causes of his own behavior as causes of his behavior in the process
|
||
of guiding behavior. But as I suggested earlier, reason is not merely
|
||
the capacity to monitor the causes of one’s behavior during the
|
||
behavior guiding process, because reflection on the causes of
|
||
behavior eventually changes how behavior is caused. Rational
|
||
imagination enables subjects to see the actual causes of behavior
|
||
against the background of what is possible, and reasoning about what
|
||
to do discovers new and better goals of behavior. Assuming that the
|
||
subject can do what reason discovers to be good, this is a new way of
|
||
causing behavior. <i>Reasons </i>are causes of behavior that are
|
||
represented as causes of behavior as an essential part of the process
|
||
by which they cause the kind of behavior they do, and this change in
|
||
the causes of behavior can change the kind of behavior caused. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Reason
|
||
becomes a behavior guidance system by taking over the control of
|
||
behavior from animal desires. Since animals act on their strongest
|
||
desire at the moment, what enables reason to take control is a desire
|
||
to be rational. It is no mystery where this desire comes from, for we
|
||
have been tracing its evolution from its origin in the dominance
|
||
hierarchy established among social animals by their biological
|
||
behavior guidance system. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In social
|
||
animals, as we have seen, conflicts are resolved by a dominance
|
||
hierarchy in which a confrontation of some kind among members
|
||
determines a ranking, or “pecking order.” Desires provided by the
|
||
biological behavior guidance system motivate losers in that
|
||
confrontation to submit to more dominant members, even though it may
|
||
mean not acting on other strong animal desires, such as the desire to
|
||
eat or to mate. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This desire
|
||
to submit became the source of the leader’s power to generate
|
||
social level behavior in primitive spiritual animals, but since the
|
||
leader coordinates their behavior by using language to assign members
|
||
special tasks in his plan, it becomes the desire to conform one’s
|
||
behavior to a linguistic representation of it. The linguistic system
|
||
of representation is located in the left hemisphere, and the
|
||
dominance of the left hemisphere made it possible for linguistic
|
||
representations of behavior to determine motor output to the body.
|
||
But which linguistic representations would control behavior was
|
||
determined by the leader, because the members were motivated to do
|
||
what the leader told them to do, even when they had strong animal
|
||
desires to the contrary, such as fear, fatigue, lust and anger. The
|
||
desires to submit to the leader was inevitably connected to
|
||
linguistic representations, because those spiritual animals in which
|
||
the use of language was not a reliable was of generating social level
|
||
behavior would be vanquished by spiritual animals in which it was. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">With the
|
||
evolution of psychological sentences at the rational spiritual stage,
|
||
naturalistic imagination evolved into rational imagination, and the
|
||
linguistic interaction that guided behavior was no longer merely the
|
||
distribution of a plan by the leader, but rather arguing about what
|
||
they should do in the situation. The exchange of arguments enabled
|
||
them to see which intention made their world views most coherent, and
|
||
thus, it led them to agree about which alternative to choose. Thus,
|
||
the desire to submit to the instructions of a leader evolved into the
|
||
desire to submit to reason. This transformation in the nature of
|
||
reflective subjects was assumed in the foregoing explanation of
|
||
institutions as regular social level behavior generated by the mutual
|
||
acceptance of arguments about how to behave in various situations. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
two stages by which rational spiritual animals evolve from nomadic
|
||
bands of hominids is a case of ontogeny recapitulating phylogeny, for
|
||
there is a similar two-step process by which individual subjects come
|
||
to submit to the authority of reason. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Individuals
|
||
enter spiritual animals as babies, mere bodies that must be handled
|
||
by other members until locomotor and manipulative schema can develop
|
||
into a spatial imagination. They can see themselves as bodies in a
|
||
world of objects in space with the capacity to manipulate other
|
||
objects, and they have a desire to submit to their parents in ways
|
||
that do not depend on the use of language. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As their
|
||
sensory-motor skills are developing, their brains are also
|
||
internalizing a natural language, and that makes it possible for them
|
||
to submit to the parent’s linguistic instructions. At first, the
|
||
child can use only natural sentences, but some time between the ages
|
||
of 3 and 5 they acquire the use of psychological sentences, thereby
|
||
learning to distinguish how the world appears to a subject from what
|
||
it really is. But even after the child acquires a faculty of rational
|
||
imagination and the capacity to reflect on her own psychological
|
||
states, her status in the family is like that of a member of a
|
||
primitive spiritual animal, because the desire to submit to a leader
|
||
is a desire that is normally attached to her parents or guardian.
|
||
Parents are responsible for devising the plan, and the child looks to
|
||
the parent for guidance. Children are not quite like members of
|
||
primitive spiritual animals, for they are also acquiring additional
|
||
brain structures by which they can use rational imagination to
|
||
understand the arguments and judge arguments by their coherence. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Adolescence
|
||
recapitulates the change in the desire to submit to a leader that
|
||
occurred when reason evolved. Just as the authority of the leader
|
||
passed to the arguments they mutually acknowledged, so the authority
|
||
of the parent passes during adolescence to the arguments acquired
|
||
from the culture. Thus, the child becomes a rational being. It is a
|
||
transformation that in which the child matures physiologically and
|
||
acquires an interest in sex, and not surprisingly, it is marked by a
|
||
rebellion against the authority of parents, a concern with her peer
|
||
group, and a sudden interest in her own identity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Autonomy
|
||
of reason.</i> As the desire to submit to reason develops, the child
|
||
become autonomous or has free will, because its behavior comes under
|
||
the control of reason. Reason discovers the good by a process of
|
||
arguing about what to do, and the desire to submit to reason enables
|
||
the subject to do what is good because it is good, that is, simply
|
||
because she believes that it is good. Thus, reason takes control of
|
||
behavior. “Will” is the traditional name for the intentions
|
||
formed by practical reason. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This change
|
||
in the animal behavior guidance system is aptly called “free will”
|
||
or “autonomy,” because it enables the subject to act contrary to
|
||
strong animal desires. When the subject has reason to believe that
|
||
some course of action is good, she can act accordingly even when she
|
||
has strong immediate desires to do what she considers bad, because
|
||
the desire to submit to reason is normally the strongest desire.
|
||
Thus, the rational subject has self control and can be responsible
|
||
for doing what is good. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It may not
|
||
seem that what puts reason in the driver’s seat is a desire,
|
||
because it is normally felt only when it is not satisfied, much like
|
||
the desire to breathe. When a subject fails to do what she has chosen
|
||
to do because she believes it is what is good, she typically feels
|
||
shame (or guilt as well, if it is a failure to do what is morally
|
||
good). That is what it feels like to fail to satisfy the desire to
|
||
submit to reason, and reflecting on the cause of that feeling tends
|
||
to strengthen the desire to be rational. The fact that one has only a
|
||
feeling of power and well being when it is being satisfied does not
|
||
mean that it is not a desire at all. In animals whose behavior is
|
||
guided by desire, such a modification of the affective system is the
|
||
most efficient way of bringing behavior under the control of reason.
|
||
But the desire to be rational is not just another desire, for it is
|
||
the foundation of reason as the behavior guidance system of the
|
||
subject.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">One is not
|
||
always able to do what she believes to be good, for example, when she
|
||
is tempted to eat too much by the availability of delicious food.
|
||
Incontinence, or weakness of will, as it is called, can be caused by
|
||
a weakness in the desire to submit to reason, for example, when one
|
||
is tired, depressed or demoralized. One is responsible for such
|
||
incontinent behavior, because the desire to submit to reason is
|
||
normally strong enough to resist animal desires, at least, it is when
|
||
one understands the means that are necessary to attain the goal one
|
||
is pursuing. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Individual
|
||
self interest.</i> There are basically two ways that the autonomy
|
||
makes the rational subject more powerful as an individual than other
|
||
multicellular animals. One is the ability to act in the interest of
|
||
his individual Self, or what is traditionally called “self
|
||
interest.” The other is the capacity to pursue goals beyond those
|
||
that control conditions affecting her own reproduction., or necessary
|
||
goals and optional goals, respectively. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Necessary
|
||
goals of individual self interest.</i> The reflective subject has a
|
||
Self, as we have seen, because her faculty of rational imagination
|
||
(specifically reflective understanding) enables her to tell a story
|
||
about her self by which she recognizes her identity over time. This
|
||
is the result of accepting the arguments of the science of subjects
|
||
that have accumulated as culture. But with the desire to submit to
|
||
reason, it gives the subject far more power to attain her goals.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">By
|
||
recognizing that the subject will have desires in the future that are
|
||
not currently strong, reason puts her in a position to devise a plan
|
||
for what to choose in a whole series of situations that enables her
|
||
to satisfy them more completely than simply acting on the strongest
|
||
desire at each moment. The ability to act at each moment in a way
|
||
that will maximize the satisfaction of her desire over her whole life
|
||
makes her far more powerful than other animals, because non-rational
|
||
animals are locked in the immediate present and have only their
|
||
affective system to choose which goal to pursue in each situation. In
|
||
selecting how to behave in any situation, animals must rely on the
|
||
priorities among goals set by the biological behavior guidance system
|
||
as a result of biological evolution. Though that maximizes the
|
||
holistic power for animals of their kind, there is a way to increase
|
||
the power to control relevant conditions. With the faculty of reason
|
||
and a desire to submit to its conclusions about how to behave, she
|
||
can act with foresight and pursue long term goals, or goals that can
|
||
be attained only by how actions work together over a long period of
|
||
time. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
power is often what is meant by “self interest,” and that is
|
||
appropriate, because it is the capacity to act in the present moment
|
||
for the interest of one’s Self. The Self includes the whole
|
||
reproductive cycle, and thus, by taking responsibility for doing what
|
||
is in its interest, the rational subject is constructing a
|
||
spatio-temporal structure, or a four dimensional object. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If we think
|
||
of the natural perfection of the individual life as the beauty of the
|
||
Self, the rational subject may be likened to an artist painting a
|
||
portrait of herself. Her paints are behavior directed by desire at
|
||
certain goals, and her canvas is space and time, including all the
|
||
particular situations she encounters and what others contribute. She
|
||
paints her portrait in a world of objects in space, except that it is
|
||
also laid out in time. Her painting is skewed in the direc­tion
|
||
of the future, since, at any point in the process, the past is done
|
||
and cannot be undone. And the future can be seen only incompletely
|
||
and vaguely through the telescope of causal connections believed to
|
||
hold in the world, since some features are painted in by unexpected
|
||
events in the natural and social world. It is as if the canvas of
|
||
space and time required one to complete the painting from left to
|
||
right. The rational subject is unable to go back and change the
|
||
paints already applied on the left, but must always apply paints on
|
||
the right side of what has already been painted, and do it so that,
|
||
when one has worked one’s way to the right edge of the canvas,
|
||
everything will fit together as the portrait of one’s Self. The
|
||
main tool in constructing such a work of art is a life plan. That is,
|
||
the way to make the brush strokes one applies add up to the portrait
|
||
of a beautiful Self in the end is to use one’s under­standing
|
||
of the world and how it works to fig­ure out how to behave now in
|
||
order to fulfill as many of the goals set by desires is as harmonious
|
||
a ways as a single body can in a world of objects in space over time.
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
is the effect of having a Self as seen from our ontological
|
||
perspective, but it may not be how self interest is ordinarily
|
||
understood. The temporal structure of the Self is obvious enough in
|
||
the subject’s recognition of the inevitability of death, but the
|
||
condition of actually existing only at the present gives one a
|
||
different perspective. Indeed, one has already lived part of that
|
||
temporal whole by the time one becomes fully reflective, and although
|
||
the story one can tell about oneself extends back even beyond what
|
||
can be remembered to the stories that parents tell about the earliest
|
||
years, the future is largely open, like a clean canvas. It is not
|
||
easy to predict all the situations one will face in the distant
|
||
future, and that makes it difficult to develop a plan that will cover
|
||
a whole life, even though that is what self interest involves at its
|
||
most coherent. Thus, the way to take responsibility for that future
|
||
seems to be to follow certain principles of prudence and to think of
|
||
one’s interest as having a certain kind of Self, where the Self is
|
||
something that one has and carries along. That makes it seem that the
|
||
pursuit of self interest, or the good life, is a matter of observing
|
||
certain principles and priorities in situations as they arise and
|
||
filling in the details as the time comes to act on them.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote1anc" href="#sdendnote1sym"><sup>i</sup></a></sup>
|
||
Instead of acting for the sake of one’s life as a whole, one tries
|
||
to live up to a self-image, that is, have an identity of a certain
|
||
kind. Thus, it is not always clear that serving one’s self interest
|
||
is the job of constructing a Self as a whole life. But toward the
|
||
end, it becomes clearer that the Self one has is the life that one
|
||
has led, and then one sees the portrait one has painted and knows who
|
||
one really is. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Optional
|
||
goals of individual self interest. </i>The capacity to act in the
|
||
interest of her Self in the sense of maximizing the satisfaction of
|
||
desires over a whole lifetime is, however, only one aspect of the
|
||
autonomy that comes from being a rational subject. We have been
|
||
assuming that the goals of individual behavior are determined by
|
||
desires, because if we set aside the goals that are justified by
|
||
religion, that is how it appears from the point of view of the
|
||
reflective subject. But from our ontological vantage, we have a
|
||
deeper explanation of what makes the goals of animal behavior good,
|
||
and taking it into consideration, we can see another way in which
|
||
rational subjects are more powerful than other animals.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Desires
|
||
set goals for subjective animals that guide their behavior to control
|
||
the conditions that affect their reproduction, and as they approach
|
||
natural perfection for animals of their kind, the relative strengths
|
||
of their desires in the various situations determines a priority
|
||
among them that makes them as powerful as possible for them over
|
||
their whole reproductive cycle. What makes the goals good is that
|
||
they control relevant conditions, because that is how their animal
|
||
behavior contributes to their natural perfection.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Rational
|
||
subjects are more powerful than other animals, because, as we have
|
||
seen, instead of relying on the priorities among goals set by the
|
||
strength of desires, they can choose goals in the present situation
|
||
that will work together with behavior in other situations to satisfy
|
||
the entire range of their desires over a period of time more reliably
|
||
and completely. But that is to assume that the desires of rational
|
||
subjects also direct them to goals that control conditions that
|
||
affect their individual reproduction, and that is not necessarily
|
||
true. One reason it is not true is that rational subjects are parts
|
||
of spiritual animals, and they have desires that adapt them to that
|
||
ecological niche and control conditions that affect the reproduction
|
||
of the spiritual animal as a whole. But our concern here is another
|
||
reason it is not true. Reason itself gives the subject the capacity
|
||
to make goals part of their individual self interest, that is, good
|
||
for them, even though they do not contribute their reproduction on
|
||
either level of biological organization.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Arguments
|
||
evolve within spiritual animals by rational selection, that is, when
|
||
they result in a more coherent worldview. This is basically an
|
||
aesthetic judgment, for it depends on rational imagination and the
|
||
capacity to compare the beliefs or intentions proposed by arguments
|
||
against the background of established beliefs and intentions. It
|
||
seeks an optimum that can be recognized only by comparison with other
|
||
possibilities, and thus, it is ultimately a judgment about how to do
|
||
the most with the least, the basic criterion of natural perfection.
|
||
Rational imagination includes, however, an understanding of causes in
|
||
both the natural and the social world, and thus, it is possible to
|
||
recognize the natural perfection of other organisms, ecologies,
|
||
cultures, or spiritual animals that have evolved by reproductive
|
||
causation. Thus, it is also possible to see what is good for them,
|
||
because they can see what contributes to their natural perfection. In
|
||
short, rational beings can discover things that are good even when
|
||
they do not contribute to their own natural perfection. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
autonomy that comes from reason enables the reflective subject to do
|
||
what is good because it is good, that is, simply because she believes
|
||
that it is good, whether or not she already desires it. Thus, when
|
||
rational subjects recognize that something they can control would be
|
||
good by seeing how it would contribute to natural perfection in some
|
||
way, they can choose to pursue it as a goal. To choose it as a goal
|
||
of one’s own behavior is to make it good for one self, that is, as
|
||
part of one’s individual self interest. Thus, the individual can
|
||
pursue goals that are good for them, even though they do not control
|
||
conditions that affect their own individual reproduction. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
explanation of the nature of reason entails internalism.
|
||
“Internalism” is the view that the motive for pursing the good
|
||
does not require a desire for the goal, but rather comes from simply
|
||
recognizing that the goal is good. When reason is in the driver’s
|
||
seat, that is how behavior is caused. It is the <i>belief </i>that
|
||
the goal is good that motivates the subject to pursue it. Though he
|
||
would not have this motive without having a desire to submit to
|
||
reason, that does not make this an externalist theory about value
|
||
judgments, for the desire to submit to reason does not come from a
|
||
desire for the goal being pursued. On the contrary, a desire for the
|
||
goal comes from the desire to submit to reason. The desire to submit
|
||
to reason is neutral among goals, for it gives the subject a motive
|
||
to pursue whatever goal reason judges to be good, regardless what she
|
||
may feel about the goal otherwise.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This does
|
||
not mean that a rational subject can make any goal good for himself
|
||
by choosing it as a goal. The goal must already be good in some way
|
||
for something, or else it would not be rational to choose it.
|
||
Choosing to pursue the goal merely makes it good <i>for </i>the
|
||
rational subject, that is, a part of his individual self interest.
|
||
However, what is good objectively must be understood to include not
|
||
just what contributes to the natural perfection that comes to exist
|
||
by reproductive causation, but also to artificial forms of natural
|
||
perfection, such as craftsmanship and works of fine art. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As one
|
||
commits oneself to the goal, one comes to have a desire to pursue it,
|
||
but in this case, the desire may come only from the desire to submit
|
||
to reason and its inherent interest in the beautiful. Thus, these
|
||
goals are already included in one’s individual self interest as
|
||
explained above, that is, as maximizing the satisfaction of desire.
|
||
But from our ontological perspective, it is important to distinguish
|
||
them from the goals that are good because they control conditions
|
||
that affect one’s individual reproduction, including most of the
|
||
goals set by animal desires. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Let
|
||
us call the goals that are good for the rational subject because they
|
||
control conditions affecting his own reproduction “necessary
|
||
goals”, or goals of “narrow individual self interest,” and the
|
||
goals that are good for him because he chooses to pursue them
|
||
“optional goals,” or goals of “broad self interest.” What
|
||
contributes to the natural perfection of a rational subject includes,
|
||
therefore, both necessary and optional goals (both what is in his
|
||
broad self interest as well as what is in his narrow self interest),
|
||
though in cases of conflict, necessary goals take priority over
|
||
optional goals. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Reason
|
||
makes the individual more powerful than other animals, therefore, in
|
||
two way—in the first instance, by making them better able to
|
||
control conditions that affect their individual reproduction, but
|
||
beyond that, by enabling them to pursue other goals that are good
|
||
because of contributing to other forms of natural perfection or to
|
||
artificial perfection, such as works of art (and to pursue those
|
||
goals as efficiently as possible). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Spiritual
|
||
self interest.</i> The other half of the dichotomy about arguments of
|
||
practical reason has to do with the interest of the spiritual animal,
|
||
as opposed to the individual subjects who make it up. Things are good
|
||
or bad for the spiritual animal in a way that parallels how things
|
||
are good or bad for individuals, because with evolution by
|
||
reproductive causation working on both levels of biological
|
||
organization at once, organisms on both levels change gradually in
|
||
the direction of natural perfection for organisms of their kind. And
|
||
since both are rational beings, both have both necessary and optional
|
||
goals. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
relationship between these two biological levels, as we have seen,
|
||
has no precedent in biological evolution. Though spiritual animals
|
||
are made up, like multicellular organisms, of simpler organisms, the
|
||
parallel between these two part-whole relations is not complete. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In
|
||
multicellular animals, natural selection works only at the higher
|
||
biological level, because all the member cells of a multicellular
|
||
organism derive from a single, fertilized egg cell. Though sexual
|
||
reproduction makes it possible, as we have seen, to focus natural
|
||
selection so that lower level structures are what evolves, traits are
|
||
selected in cells <i>only </i>when they are good for the
|
||
multicellular organism. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In the
|
||
evolution of spiritual animals, however, natural selection works on
|
||
two levels of biological organization at once. At the same time
|
||
spiritual animals are imposing group-level natural selection on
|
||
themselves by their reproduction (division into smaller groups),
|
||
individual members are imposing natural selection on themselves by
|
||
their sexual reproduction within spiritual animals, selecting some
|
||
traits, perhaps, that are not good for the spiritual animal. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">With
|
||
reproductive causation shaping both the spiritual animal and its
|
||
multicellular members to be powerful as possible over their
|
||
reproductive cycles, individuals evolve toward a natural perfection
|
||
of organisms that is subject to the constraint of being parts of
|
||
spiritual animals, and spiritual animals evolve toward a natural
|
||
perfection of organisms that is subject to the constraint of being
|
||
made up of autonomous individuals.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Spiritual
|
||
interest.</i> There are, therefore, two kinds of interests. In
|
||
addition to the interest of each individual (or what I am calling
|
||
“individual self interest”), there is the interest of the
|
||
spiritual animal as a whole. I will call it the “spiritual
|
||
interest.” </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Spiritual
|
||
animals evolve toward natural perfection for organisms of their kind
|
||
because their multicellular members (and their behavior) are bundled
|
||
together as parts of a spiritual structure that goes through
|
||
reproductive cycles as a whole and, thus, they impose natural
|
||
selection on themselves at the group level by their reproduction. War
|
||
makes group level selection very efficient, and as we have seen,
|
||
reason evolves as a way of controlling relevant conditions having to
|
||
do with choosing how to behave toward other spiritual animals. Since
|
||
they have, or come to have, the optimal part-whole relation by which
|
||
natural perfection is defined, things are good for spiritual animals
|
||
because they contribute to that kind of natural perfection. There is,
|
||
therefore, a spiritual interest, the interest of the spiritual
|
||
animal.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since human
|
||
society is a spiritual animal, it has, like all animals, behavior as
|
||
a whole directed at goals which control conditions affecting its
|
||
reproduction. Plans for group behavior arise by rational selection
|
||
from arguments being exchanged about what the group should do, though
|
||
the choice of what to do is normally structured by a government,
|
||
because spiritual animals act mainly through social institutions. The
|
||
good pursued by spiritual animals includes, as we have seen, the
|
||
usual animal goals. Some group-level behavior acts on nature to
|
||
acquire usable energy from nature and to protect itself from danger,
|
||
such as predators and natural disasters. But some behavior directed
|
||
at other objects in space has no parallel with multicellular animals,
|
||
such as crucial decisions about war and peace in relation to other
|
||
spiritual animals. Other behavior acts on parts of its own body in
|
||
order to provide for the reproduction of its members (kinship
|
||
system), to educate them so that they can take advantage of the
|
||
culture, and to protect its health by punishing wrongdoing.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">These are
|
||
<i>necessary goals</i>, because they are conditions that social level
|
||
behavior must normally control in order for the spiritual animal to
|
||
reproduce as a whole, if the occasion ever arises. They are how the
|
||
non-reproductive work get done. But since spiritual animals are
|
||
guided by reason, the autonomy of reason also makes it possible for
|
||
them to pursue goals simply because they are good, even if they are
|
||
not good for the spiritual animal. The can, for example, act in the
|
||
interest of other spiritual animals, other animals, or the ecology.
|
||
By choosing to pursue such goals, they become good for the spiritual
|
||
animal. But there are <i>optional goals</i>, because they do not
|
||
control conditions that affect their social level reproduction. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Spiritual
|
||
interest as self interest.</i> The interest of the spiritual animal
|
||
is not, however, just an interest of the spiritual animal as a whole.
|
||
It is an interest of each rational subject who is a member of it.
|
||
That is what I mean by calling it “spiritual <i>self </i>interest.”
|
||
Since the interest of the spiritual animal is as much an interest of
|
||
the rational subject as his individual interest, he would have both a
|
||
spiritual self interest and an individual self interest. The parity
|
||
of these two interests for the rational subject follows from the
|
||
nature of reason itself. Reason is a unique kind of behavior guidance
|
||
system, because it is responsible for animal behavior on two levels
|
||
of biological organization at once. And yet the ultimate agent for
|
||
both functions is the individual.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
original function of reason was, as we have seen, to guide the
|
||
spiritual animal’s behavior in making choices about war and peace;
|
||
reason was naturally selected at the group level by success in war.
|
||
But since reason works by individuals using psychological sentences
|
||
to operate their own imaginations, they can simulate the reasoning of
|
||
other subjective animals, and individuals inevitably came to use
|
||
reason to see into one another’s minds, as well as to reflect on
|
||
their own. Thus, reason took over the function of guiding behavior at
|
||
the individual level, as well as the group level. Moreover, in order
|
||
to serve its behavior guiding function on both levels, reason must
|
||
not only discover what is good, but also do it. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In both
|
||
cases, the power of reason to discover what is good is a result of
|
||
cultural evolution, or the effect of a new, contained form of
|
||
reproductive causation that necessarily involves both levels.
|
||
Cultural evolution depends on the spiritual animal as a whole,
|
||
because the exchange of arguments is how arguments reproduce, forcing
|
||
a natural selection to be made. And it depends on the individual,
|
||
since reproductive success for arguments is determined by rational
|
||
selection, that is, by the individual’s judgment of what is most
|
||
coherent. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">When it
|
||
comes to doing what it good, each individual subject can, on his own,
|
||
use the arguments that have evolved to discover what is in his own
|
||
self-interest (because the crucial power of reason is seated in the
|
||
parts of the spiritual animal), and he can act in his self-interest
|
||
independently of others (for he has control over his individual,
|
||
physical body). But in order for reason to guide behavior in pursuit
|
||
of the good of the spiritual animal, agreement among the members is
|
||
required, in principle, for both the judgment about what is good and
|
||
doing what is good, since only through their cooperation with one
|
||
another is the spiritual animal able to act at all. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In other
|
||
words, not only does the spiritual animal not have a body of its own,
|
||
apart from the bodies of its members, neither does it have a mind of
|
||
its own, apart from the minds of its members.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
rational subject is, therefore, the ultimate agent behind behavior on
|
||
both levels of biological organization. He is responsible not only
|
||
for pursing his own good as an individual, but also for pursuing the
|
||
good of his spiritual animal. The rational subject thinks of himself
|
||
as his Self, and thus, we can describe this twofold responsibility by
|
||
saying that he has a spiritual self interest as well as an individual
|
||
self interest. It comes from his nature as a rational subject,
|
||
because membership in a spiritual animal is part of the essential
|
||
nature of the rational subject. As such, he shares responsibility, in
|
||
principle, for choosing which social-level goals the spiritual animal
|
||
will pursue, and he has certain tasks to perform in acting on those
|
||
decisions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>The
|
||
balance between individual and spiritual self interests.</i> Though
|
||
the rational subject has both interests and must pursue goals on both
|
||
levels of biological organization as part of the Self he constructs
|
||
during his lifetime, individual and spiritual self interests are
|
||
different ways in which things are good or bad, because they
|
||
contribute to two different kinds of natural perfection. Thus, they
|
||
may be in conflict with one another. And that raises the question of
|
||
which takes priority, that is, which goal it is good for the rational
|
||
subject to choose.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Even in
|
||
multicellular organisms, the interest of part is not <i>identical </i>to
|
||
that of the whole. Things can be good for the cell, because cells
|
||
have the natural perfection of organisms. And what is good for the
|
||
cell is good for the multicellular organism as a whole, because cells
|
||
are the lower level organisms whose behavior is coordinated in
|
||
constituting the multicellular organism. Thus, what contributes to
|
||
the natural perfection of the cell necessarily contributes, by way of
|
||
the cell, to the natural perfection of the multicellular organism.
|
||
But the relationship is not reciprocal. What is good for the whole is
|
||
not necessarily good for the part. Normally, what is good for the
|
||
multicellular organism is good for its cells, since the whole
|
||
provides the environment in which the cells can exist and their
|
||
traits can control conditions affecting their own reproduction. But
|
||
the good of the whole takes priority over the good of the cell. There
|
||
are situations in which multicellular animals sacrifice their own
|
||
parts, for example, in sloughing off skin cells and cells dying in
|
||
the process of embryological development. Thus, the part has an
|
||
interest that can conflict with the interest of the whole even in
|
||
multicellular animals.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
interests of part and whole diverge even further, however, in
|
||
spiritual animals, and that may make it seem impossible to reconcile
|
||
these two interests of the rational subject. In the spiritual animal,
|
||
as in multicellular organisms, what is good for the whole is not
|
||
necessarily good for the part. Though the spiritual animal does
|
||
provide energy and protection for the individual, its interest is not
|
||
always good for the individual. The spiritual animal may also
|
||
sacrifice its parts for social-level goals, for example, requiring
|
||
members to fight in wars where many will die and more will be
|
||
injured. Or in natural disasters, it may have to sacrifice some for
|
||
the spiritual animal itself to survive. But in spiritual animals, not
|
||
only is the interest of the whole sometimes not good for the part,
|
||
the interest of the part is also sometimes not good for the whole.
|
||
That is possible in spiritual animals, even though it is not possible
|
||
in multicellular organisms, because reproductive causation is at work
|
||
on both individual and social levels at the same time. Traits of
|
||
individuals are naturally selected by the individual’s success in
|
||
sexual reproduction, and what controls conditions affecting
|
||
individual reproduction may not control any condition affecting the
|
||
whole’s reproduction. Though rational subjects evolve toward the
|
||
natural perfection for organisms of their kind subject to the
|
||
condition of being members of spiritual animals, what is in the
|
||
individual’s self interest may conflict with the interest of the
|
||
spiritual animal. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">For
|
||
example, it may be in one’s individual self interest to commit
|
||
treason to receive a bribe, but it is clearly not in his spiritual
|
||
self interest. More generally, the pursuit of individual self
|
||
interest can impair the capacity of the spiritual animal to pursue
|
||
its social level goals by leading to conflicts among its members that
|
||
make them unable to cooperate. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Morality.</i>
|
||
That is why morality evolves in spiritual animals. The spiritual
|
||
animal needs cooperative relations among its members to pursue its
|
||
own goals, and thus, its natural perfection requires that limits be
|
||
placed on the pursuit of individual self interest. The function of
|
||
morality is to limit the pursuit of individual self interest so that
|
||
the spiritual animal is able to pursue its goals, that is, for the
|
||
sake of spiritual self interest. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
arguments that evolve in spiritual animals about what individuals
|
||
should do in relation to one another and in relation to the
|
||
institutions and laws promulgated by the government restrict that
|
||
what they can do in pursuit of goals of individual self interest.
|
||
More will be said about the content of these rules in discussing
|
||
necessary truths about what ought to be, but for now, let mention a
|
||
few basic aspects of these rules.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Some moral
|
||
rules have the function of avoiding conflicts among members that
|
||
would make them unable to cooperate. The pursuit of goals of
|
||
individual self interest could lead rational subjects to act in ways
|
||
that harm other members, such as lying about them, deceiving them,
|
||
stealing from them, and even killing them. Such harm to other members
|
||
would quickly escalate into warfare, because rational subjects are
|
||
quite able to harm others in return, since they have desires that
|
||
have evolved to enable them to fight wars. Thus, in arguing about
|
||
what individuals should do, the members of spiritual animals will
|
||
come to mutually recognize certain limits on the pursuit of self
|
||
interest. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">These moral
|
||
limits will tend to treat members equally, because they are parts of
|
||
the evolution of culture by rational selection. Moral rules must be
|
||
acceptable to everyone, because those that favor some members over
|
||
others will not be rationally selected by the latter. Equality of
|
||
treatment mirrors the symmetry among rational subjects in the
|
||
spiritual animal. (There may be institutions and social structures in
|
||
which moral rules do not treat members equally, but since the
|
||
functions responsible for them are not recognized, the inequalities
|
||
may be justified inadequately by appeal to religion.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Furthermore,
|
||
these moral limits will tend to leave members with the maximum
|
||
freedom to pursue goals of individual self interest compatible with
|
||
the same freedom for others, because as culture evolves, individual
|
||
will not accept arguments that limit their behavior more than
|
||
necessary. (But limits on the maximum possible freedom may be imposed
|
||
by the religion of the spiritual animal in order to ensure the
|
||
general acceptance of the culture by public expressions of
|
||
submission.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are
|
||
also moral rules requiring members to play their roles in generating
|
||
social level behavior, that is, requiring them to obey the laws
|
||
promulgated by the government and to participate fairly in its
|
||
institutions. But since the rules governing duties to the spiritual
|
||
animal are products of cultural evolution, they will also tend to
|
||
treat members equally and impose the minimum burdens on them.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Justice.</i>
|
||
Morality is only part of the balance between the individual and
|
||
spiritual interests, the part that affects the behavior of members
|
||
generally. But the spiritual animal can also act as a whole on its
|
||
own members, and since the rules governing the behavior of the
|
||
spiritual animal as a whole are also products of cultural evolution,
|
||
there are comparable limits on its pursuit of goals of spiritual
|
||
interest.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
spiritual animal acts on nature as a whole through economic
|
||
institutions, but since each member needs part of the product of that
|
||
activity to control the conditions that affect his own reproduction
|
||
as an individual, the arguments that evolve by rational selection
|
||
will tend to require that every member that puts forth a reasonable
|
||
effort to cooperate in generating social level behavior receive a
|
||
sufficient portion to pursue the goals of his narrow individual self
|
||
interest. That is the requirement that the spiritual animal provide
|
||
for distributive justice: <i>the spiritual animal must make it
|
||
possible for each member, with a reasonable effort, to be able to
|
||
attain the necessary goals of individual self interest</i>. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Punishment
|
||
is the most directly harmful way that the spiritual animal acts on
|
||
its members, but rules providing for the punishment of wrongdoers
|
||
will inevitably evolve, because it protects members against the harm
|
||
caused by violations of moral limits. But since the members are
|
||
potential objects of such behavior, judicial institutions will tend
|
||
to follow procedures that ensure that only the guilty are punished.
|
||
That is the requirement that the spiritual animal provide for
|
||
retributive justice. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
generation of social level behavior can also harm individuals, for
|
||
example, by requiring them to risk their lives in war or in
|
||
responding to natural disasters. Rules permitting such harm to
|
||
individuals will be accepted as culture evolves, because those
|
||
conditions must be controlled or the spiritual animal will not
|
||
survive and be in a position to reproduce. Since such harm is the
|
||
necessary means to the attainment of necessary goals of spiritual
|
||
interest, they are in one’s spiritual self interest, and even
|
||
though it may mean that the individual dies, it does not conflict
|
||
with the attainment of necessary goals of individual self interest,
|
||
because that risk is inherent in the ecological niche in which the
|
||
individual pursues goals that control conditions affecting individual
|
||
reproduction. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But rules
|
||
will not evolve that allow the government to inflict such harm on
|
||
individuals for optional goals of spiritual interest, for example,
|
||
because of the greater good the harm does for other individuals,
|
||
because such arguments will not be accepted by those who recognize
|
||
that their individual self interest might be sacrificed for the good
|
||
of others. That is the requirement that the spiritual animal
|
||
recognize inviolable rights of individuals.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus, just
|
||
as rules of morality that rational subjects must observe limit the
|
||
pursuit of their individual self interest because of their spiritual
|
||
self interest, so rules of justice that the spiritual animal must
|
||
observe limit the pursuit of spiritual self interest because of the
|
||
individual self interest. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Content
|
||
of rules of morality and justice. </i>There is a necessary content to
|
||
the rules of morality and justice, because they are basic to the
|
||
part-whole relation whose optimum is the natural perfection of the
|
||
spiritual animal. Mutual acknowledgment of rules of morality and
|
||
justice is as necessary to way in which individual behavior is
|
||
coordinated in social level action as the right messenger molecules
|
||
are to the relationship by which cells are bundled together in
|
||
multicellular animals. That is, just as the physical body’s
|
||
behavior depends on its cells having normal relationships, so the use
|
||
of language to generate social level behavior in a spiritual animal
|
||
depends on its members having normal relationships in which they
|
||
mutually acknowledge rules that require cooperation, limit the
|
||
pursuit of self-interest to protect other individuals, and respect
|
||
the rights of individual members. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
publicly recognized symmetry among members does not mean that social
|
||
rules permit no differences in benefits and burdens. It means only
|
||
that differences in treatment must be justified by differences among
|
||
the members. It would be obvious that there are relevant differences
|
||
between males and females, between adults and children, and between
|
||
young and old, and so the kinship systems would tend to reflect these
|
||
differences in assigning rights and duties. Likewise, political
|
||
institution give the leader and other officials powers that others
|
||
lack. Such differences are how institutions coordinate social level
|
||
behavior. But since they are generated ultimately by the exchange of
|
||
arguments, they are reformed when abuses are recognized, and
|
||
institutions continue to be modified until they prescribe differences
|
||
in treatment only when they are justified in terms of recognized
|
||
functions of the institutions.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Still, such
|
||
rules of morality and justice are tendencies of cultural evolution.
|
||
Culture evolves by a rational selection that depends on all the
|
||
members of the spiritual animal, and rational subjects prefer
|
||
arguments that maximize the coherence of their world views. As noted
|
||
above, there are countervailing factors that may divert moral rules
|
||
from this natural perfection of culture, and there may be spiritual
|
||
animals in which cultural evolution itself is so inhibited that it
|
||
fails to discover the good. But discovery of these rules of morality
|
||
and justice is the tendencies of cultural evolution, because they
|
||
make the arguments of maximally powerful as a whole, and that is the
|
||
natural perfection of spiritual animals at the rational stage. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Why
|
||
be moral?</i> Even before culture and the spiritual animal are
|
||
naturally perfect, however, morality must take priority over the
|
||
pursuit of individual self interest, for if it didn’t, spiritual
|
||
animals could not pursue their good, the good of the group as whole.
|
||
And there would be no rational subjects. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is, however, a problem about why the individual should be moral,
|
||
because he can often serve his individual self interest better by
|
||
violating the limits of morality, and since his individual violation
|
||
will not destroy the spiritual animal and may not even deprive him of
|
||
the benefits of being a normal member (if he is not caught), he can
|
||
individually enjoy the benefits of wrong doing. Why is it not
|
||
rational to be immoral under such conditions?</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">From the
|
||
point of view of individual self interest, the spiritual animal is
|
||
only a means to attaining individual goals. It is like having a
|
||
spiritual body, in addition to his physical body, because he can
|
||
enlist the cooperation of other in goals that are good for him
|
||
individually. And if he can avoid punishment, the wrong doing will
|
||
not impair the spiritual animal’s ability to act sufficiently to
|
||
affect the individual. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It may not
|
||
seem adequate to answer that morality is in the spiritual self
|
||
interest of the rational being, because this is a case where his
|
||
individual self interest and his spiritual self interest conflict. To
|
||
insist on being moral would seem to be simply to prefer spiritual
|
||
self interest over individual self interest. But these two interests
|
||
should be equal, because both are interests of the rational subject
|
||
in the same way. As a rational subject, he is just as responsible for
|
||
guiding behavior toward goals that are good on both levels. And in
|
||
the case of conflict, he should be just as justified in preferring
|
||
individual self interest over spiritual self interest. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
answer given by this ontological explanation of the nature of
|
||
morality is that rational subjects do not face a serious choice
|
||
between their individual self interest and their spiritual self
|
||
interest. There is no ultimate conflict between these interests, at
|
||
least, not in spiritual animals with distributive justice. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are,
|
||
as we have seen, two kinds of goals of narrow self interest,
|
||
necessary and optional, and there are two kinds of goals of spiritual
|
||
self interest, necessary and optional. Necessary goals of individual
|
||
self interest includes all the goals that must be attained in order
|
||
to control conditions that affect individual reproduction. These
|
||
include not only the physical needs to lead a normal, healthy life,
|
||
but also sufficient resources for normal social relations. (But it
|
||
does not include reproducing itself, since that is not a condition
|
||
that affects reproduction.) Optional goals of individual self
|
||
interest includes all the goals that are good for the rational
|
||
subject because he chooses to pursue them. This is possible, as we
|
||
have seen, because reason enables the subject to recognize how things
|
||
are good in virtue of contributing to natural perfection of various
|
||
kinds, not merely his own, and it enables rational subjects to do
|
||
what they believe is good. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Likewise
|
||
for the goals pursued by the spiritual animal. But the observance of
|
||
moral rules among its members is a necessary goal of spiritual
|
||
animals, not an optional goal, because that is a condition that must
|
||
be controlled in order to act as a whole. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In a
|
||
spiritual animal with minimal distributive justice, moreover,
|
||
morality does not conflict with the pursuit of necessary goals of
|
||
individual self interest, because with a reasonable effort, any
|
||
member may attain those goals. All that morality limits, therefore,
|
||
is the pursuit of optional goals of individual self interest, that
|
||
is, optional goals, which are good for the subject only because he
|
||
chooses to pursue them. Thus, the choice would be clear to rational
|
||
subjects who understood the real nature of the choice. Though
|
||
spiritual and individual interests are equal, it is a choice between
|
||
a necessary goal of one’s spiritual self interest and an optional
|
||
goal of one’s individual self interest, and thus, the choice is
|
||
clear.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Likewise,
|
||
rational subjects acting as agents of the spiritual animal cannot
|
||
justify sacrificing the lives of members unless it is a necessary
|
||
means in pursuit of a necessary goal, such as winning at war, because
|
||
it would be to prefer an optional goal of spiritual self interest
|
||
over a necessary goal of individual self interest. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
is not, of course, how reflective subjects see morality at the
|
||
rational spiritual stage. If their goals of individual self interest
|
||
have a non-religious explanation at all, they are explained as
|
||
satisfying desires, and thus, the fundamental difference between
|
||
necessary and optional goals of individual self interest is not
|
||
recognized. And since they do not see their society as a spiritual
|
||
animal, they do not understand how they have a spiritual interest. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However,
|
||
arguments do accumulate at the rational spiritual stage that convince
|
||
rational subjects to be moral. Nor is it hard to see why arguments
|
||
for being moral evolve in every culture, since that is the only
|
||
conclusion that draws individuals into cooperation and enables the
|
||
spiritual animal to act on the social level. But without an
|
||
understanding of the nature of goodness or the nature of the
|
||
spiritual animal, the reasons for being moral are seen through a
|
||
glass darkly. It is, as we have seen, the function of religion, to
|
||
provide the ultimate justification for the practical arguments
|
||
accumulated as culture. Religion is a way of thinking about the good
|
||
of spiritual animal and their own spiritual nature. This is what
|
||
Durkheim argued a century ago. He saw God (or the sacred, as opposed
|
||
to the profane) as a symbol for the group itself, and since religion
|
||
represents the group as superior to the individual, he sees it as
|
||
giving rational beings a motive for being moral. By acknowledging and
|
||
publicly celebrating the good of the whole as something higher than
|
||
individual self interest, religious institutions point to their
|
||
spiritual nature, and that answers doubts about why they should be
|
||
moral and generates institutions that enjoin them to be moral.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">When the
|
||
standard of rational coherence by which arguments are judged is no
|
||
more demanding than at the rational spiritual stage, morality can be
|
||
justified by confused and misleading talk about gods, supernatural
|
||
powers, or nonphysical beings. Since reflective subjects have evolved
|
||
as parts of spiritual animals, the desires to submit to reason is a
|
||
presumption in favor of the arguments accumulated as their culture,
|
||
and that attitude is simply reinforced by religious institutions.
|
||
Priests of some kind have the roles of speaking for their spiritual
|
||
nature, and since it is not enough simply to say that the good of the
|
||
whole is good for the individual, they invoke the authority of
|
||
ancestors, threaten punishment by spirits, or warn of the
|
||
consequences for immortal souls in an afterlife. This is the
|
||
justification of the principles on which all their practical
|
||
arguments are based. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">When
|
||
religion fails to convince members of its practical arguments, their
|
||
conformity can usually be ensured by an evolutionary elaboration on
|
||
the basic mechanism by which individuals submit to reason in the
|
||
first place. Punishment is functional in two ways. First, as already
|
||
suggested, it helps keep civil war from breaking out. Victims of
|
||
violations of moral rules are roused to anger and inclined to respond
|
||
to wrongdoers with war-like behavior, but these desires can be
|
||
satisfied peacefully by the spiritual animal as a whole stepping in
|
||
to restore the moral balance. Second, punishment is not just revenge.
|
||
Nor is it just a penalty, as if it were a price that must be paid for
|
||
misbehavior. Punishment tends to restore the moral balance in another
|
||
way, because it is a formalized reenactment of the violent
|
||
confrontation by which a dominance hierarchy is established even
|
||
among non-linguistic social animals. Punishment tends to restore the
|
||
motivation in the individual to be submit to the arguments
|
||
accumulated as culture, because by being forced to submit to
|
||
representatives of the spiritual animal, it arouses the same social
|
||
desires to ward them that made individuals submit to the leader. This
|
||
remedy works most effectively in the case of young offenders, who
|
||
have not had a proper moral training, for in their case the offense
|
||
is usually impulsive and punishment tends to strengthen the desire
|
||
that inhibits acting on impulse.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote2anc" href="#sdendnote2sym"><sup>ii</sup></a></sup></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Whatever
|
||
of the source of the belief that it is good to be moral, the belief
|
||
itself gives rational subjects a desire to be moral, because they
|
||
have the desire to submit to reason. Even when being moral is
|
||
contrary to individual self interest, the rational subject is able to
|
||
be moral, because he are able to do what is good because he believes
|
||
that it is good. What is added by ontological philosophy is an
|
||
explanation of how those faulty and not wholly convincing practical
|
||
arguments of traditional culture are pointing at the truth about what
|
||
is good, namely, that each rational subject has a spiritual interest
|
||
in being moral.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
capacity to be moral is a third way in which reason makes the subject
|
||
autonomous. We have seen how the autonomy of reason enables the
|
||
reflective subject to act contrary to the strongest desire at the
|
||
moment. And we have seen how it enables rational subjects to pursue
|
||
goals that do not control conditions that affect individual
|
||
reproduction. But by recognizing that individuals have a spiritual
|
||
interest, even if it is through a glass darkly, reason also makes the
|
||
individual autonomous in the sense that he can act contrary to their
|
||
individual self interests. When they recognize that it is good to
|
||
accept the limits of morality, rational subjects can do what is
|
||
morally good, because they recognize that it is good. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The desire
|
||
to submit to reason is, however, felt mainly when it is not
|
||
satisfied, and it feels different when one fails to live up to moral
|
||
rules than when one fails to live up to one’s individual self
|
||
interest. As we have seen, failure to follow the plan one has
|
||
recognized to be in the interest of one’s Self arouses a special
|
||
self-correcting desire, namely, shame. Shame appears as a fear of
|
||
being deprived of approval or being abandoned as worthless, and
|
||
thinking about its source motivates one to try harder in the future
|
||
to live up to one’s life plan, though it can be intensified by
|
||
public recognition of the failure, that is, as humiliation. Shame may
|
||
also be aroused by the failure to live up to moral rules, but in the
|
||
case of immoral actions, the failure to satisfy the desire to submit
|
||
to reason also arouses guilt. Guilt appears as the fear of being
|
||
forced by violence to submit, and reflecting on its cause motivates
|
||
one to do what is required to be readmitted to membership in the
|
||
spiritual animal. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>The
|
||
inevitable incoherence of rational culture.</i> Culture is the
|
||
accumulation of arguments in rational spiritual animals, and though
|
||
they evolve by rational selection in the direction of natural
|
||
perfection for arguments of culture, even at the end of the rational
|
||
spiritual stage, the content of culture is divided by three
|
||
insurmountable dichotomies. In addition to the basic difference
|
||
between theoretical and practical arguments, there is the difference
|
||
within theoretical reason between arguments of natural science and
|
||
arguments of social science (both the science of subjects and the
|
||
science of the social world) and the difference within practical
|
||
reason between arguments about what is in one’s individual self
|
||
interest and what is in one’s spiritual self interest. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img 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" name="Dichotomies" align="bottom" width="404" height="300" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">These
|
||
dichotomies are obviously surmountable, for they have been derived
|
||
from spatiomaterialism as an inevitable part of culture at the
|
||
rational spiritual stage. They mirror aspects of the nature of reason
|
||
itself. The difference between practical and theoretical reason
|
||
mirrors the two functions of input to animal behavior guidance
|
||
system, representing the world so that the right kind of behavior is
|
||
chosen and representing the world so that that kind of behavior can
|
||
be adapted to the current situation, that is, between causing
|
||
behavior and causing beliefs. The difference between natural science
|
||
and the reflective sciences (psychology and social science) mirrors
|
||
the difference between the understanding of efficient causes in the
|
||
world of objects in space and the understanding of rational causes in
|
||
the world of subjects in social roles. And the difference between
|
||
individual and spiritual self interest mirrors a difference in the
|
||
role of reason in guiding individual behavior and its role in guiding
|
||
the behavior of the spiritual animal. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
ontological explanation of these dichotomies by the nature of reason
|
||
is so obvious at this point that what is likely to be obscure is how
|
||
the difference can fail to be understood. But the incoherence caused
|
||
by these dichotomies runs deep, for bridging them would require an
|
||
explanation of how the good depends on the true, how mind and body
|
||
are related, and why individuals should be moral. These are all
|
||
issues that remain unresolved even today, nearly two and one half
|
||
millennia after the beginning of philosophical culture.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Without
|
||
an adequate answer to these questions, culture is not fully coherent,
|
||
because there is no way of integrating adequately everything that
|
||
reason can know about the world as a single worldview. The
|
||
incoherence of culture may not be obvious, because without a more
|
||
coherent way of explaining the world, the coherence of the prevailing
|
||
arguments is basically the standard by which the coherence of
|
||
arguments judged. And at the rational spiritual stage, the evolution
|
||
of arguments by rational selection cannot be any more coherent,
|
||
because the level of organization of the arguments that are possible
|
||
at in rational level culture leaves arguments, at best, clustered
|
||
into the four groups entailed by the three dichotomies (that is,
|
||
natural and social science and individual and spiritual interest).
|
||
Appeal to a more basic principle is the only way of integrating and
|
||
unifying arguments at the rational stage, and there is no principle
|
||
that can adequately bridge the gaps between these clusters of
|
||
arguments. Indeed, in most cultures, even arguments in each of these
|
||
four clusters are far from being integrated under a single principle,
|
||
for even that level of natural perfection is probably beyond the
|
||
limits of cultural evolution at the rational spiritual stage.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
rational culture can do is paper over the differences among them by
|
||
religion. Religion is the attempt to explain both the natural and the
|
||
social world and, with the latter, the relationship between the
|
||
individual and the society by appeal to gods or other entities beyond
|
||
the natural world. These entities are ultimately subjects, that is,
|
||
beings whose behavior is explained by reasons, and thus, it is an
|
||
attempt to reduce all the arguments accumulated by culture to an
|
||
argument about the behavior of a special kind of subject. Such
|
||
arguments are obvious appealing. They resonate with the ancient
|
||
desire to submit to a leader in the dominance hierarchy (and the
|
||
child’s desire to submit to a parent or guardian). But without an
|
||
adequate argument, traditional religion persists only because of the
|
||
failure of culture to discover adequate answers to these basic
|
||
questions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote1">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote1sym" href="#sdendnote1anc">i</a>
|
||
This is not only Aristotle’s view of the good life, but also what
|
||
Kant assumed in speaking of “counsels of prudence” which tend to
|
||
produce happiness in the <i>Foundations of the Metaphysics of
|
||
Morals. </i>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote2">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote2sym" href="#sdendnote2anc">ii</a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
Punishment is less effective in the case of crimes by members of
|
||
gangs, because in that case, the offender is already submitting to
|
||
the authority of some culture. Nor does punishment work effectively
|
||
in philosophical cultures, like ours, in which it is coming to be
|
||
recognized that there is no valid argument for taking morality as
|
||
prior to self interest. As that becomes widely believed, the
|
||
mechanism of morality in reflective spirits may become
|
||
dysfunctional.</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</body>
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</html> |