957 lines
87 KiB
HTML
957 lines
87 KiB
HTML
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN">
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<html>
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<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
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<title>Cosmology</title>
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<meta name="generator" content="LibreOffice 4.2.8.2 (Linux)">
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<meta name="author" content="Amr Gharbeia">
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<meta name="created" content="20010831;0">
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<meta name="changed" content="20150722;204243141627937">
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<body lang="en-GB" text="#99ccff" link="#0000ff" dir="ltr" style="background: transparent">
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font color="#ff0000"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAD8AAAAUCAMAAAAN6hUYAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpGPjA4MSYqJR0cGBMNDAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD2Ty12AAAA1ElEQVR4nM2U0Q6DMAhFaakUUxD9/58dto11DzOZPmwkRXLpMbfFCNuzgOc83I+/4QNxjlc7cb7i48KJ7IpPesUL7R4gsLLnoiVEYiUUiV10vndZZ4LdLOHBb6G+rjBwAcmQMBkGY8ili863wjMpzAxhDYPvduoqMsXqV9P+aOJRrNVLNKAy/BueeO+s6SO/tbsQWnDwLH6A3AHXZx58y0exJJi8l0zP8+NFtQCqKtY6DL6JR4EmsqM2wa3vJ0A9ebTz/L4IMnfno8o3+bf4C/6n/58XPX8dAF/nzhkAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="TtsOtkCLCos_01" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="47" border="0">osmology.</b></font></font>
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By “cosmology,” I mean the ontological explanation of those parts
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of the cosmos having to so with the extremes of the very small and
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brief and the very large and long-lasting. We have already explained
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ontologically the truth of the basic laws of physics governing the
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middle range involving ordinary material objects and their
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electromagnetic interactions. But as we recognized when we inferred
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to spatiomaterialism as the best ontological explanation of the
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natural world, the simplest and best form of any such ontology would
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hold that time, space and matter are infinite. Though we left open
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the possibility that a more complex ontological assumption may be
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required to explain certain phenomena, the ideal from of
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spatiomaterialism would hold that the universe is infinite.</font></font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
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kind of infinity in question is twofold. Starting with the finite,
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there are two ways there could be an infinite series of steps, one by
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division into smaller and smaller finite units, and another by
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multiplication into larger and larger finite units. And there are
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three basic assumptions of spatiomaterialism to which it could apply:
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space, time, and matter. Let us consider where we stand on each of
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them. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Space.</b></i>
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Space seems to be infinite in both ways, as we noted in
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<font face="Arial, sans-serif">Spatiomaterialism.</font> There must
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be finite distances in space, for otherwise space would not have a
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geometrical structure at all. To hold that space has three dimensions
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is to hold that distances in it (and lengths of the objects
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coinciding with it) can be measured in three independent dimensions,
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say, by placing measuring rods down one after another. Each measuring
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rod is a unit, and since units that are parts of the same world can
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be counted [as established in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Relations
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(Math)]</font>, distance measurements must obey the theorems of
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arithmetic, including division and multiplication. Thus, space can be
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infinite in two way, by an unending division of finite distances or
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by an unending multiplication of them. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
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division of finite distances in space is without end, space is
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continuous. That is what we have assumed, and we have found no reason
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to doubt that space is continuous.</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
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multiplication of finite distances in space is without end, space is
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infinite in extent. That is the kind of spatiomaterialism that
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empirical ontologists must prefer, because it is the simplest
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assumption. Since the essential nature of each part of space includes
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its geometrical relations in three dimensions to every other part of
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space, an end to space in any direction would mean that every part of
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space has a different kind of essential nature from the rest, rather
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than the same kind of relationship to different particular parts of
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space. Not only would that complicate the nature of each part of
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space almost beyond recognition, but it would also be difficult, to
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say the least, to explain what happens at the end of space. As the
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ancient Greeks asked, What happens at the end of space? Does a spear
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thrown toward the edge of space bounce back? </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus, we
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assumed that space is infinite in extent. But we acknowledged that we
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might have to revise that assumption, for that is the prevailing
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belief among bit gang cosmologists and a spatiomaterial world in
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which space is not infinite is possible. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Time.</b></i>
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Time seems to be infinite in both ways as well. There are finite
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periods of time. There must be, because there are cyclic processes
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involving real change. Since such cycles are units that can be
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counted, the theorems of arithmetic must be true of measurements of
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time, including division and multiplication. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
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division of finite periods of time is without end, time is
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continuous. There is every reason to believe that time is continuous,
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because space is continuous and space has an inherent motion. If the
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division of time were not as unending as the division of space, there
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would be no explanation of motion, because objects could not occupy
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continuously connected parts of space as they endured through time.
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(And the original and still most basic employment of the calculus to
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represent motion in a way that overcomes Zeno’s paradox about
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motion would be a misrepresentation of the world.) </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Furthermore,
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spatiomaterialism is committed to the continuousness of time, because
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it is entailed by the assumption of an inherent motion in space as an
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aspect of its essential nature. Each distance in space corresponds to
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a period of time, and thus, if space is continuously divisible, time
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must also be. (To be sure, it is not possible to measure space by the
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velocity of light because of the Lorentz distortions, and even if we
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could, it would not necessarily tell us about space itself because of
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the acceleration of the inherent motion in gravitational fields. But
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the relationship between space and time, though complicated in these
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ways, requires time to be continuous, if space is.)</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
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multiplication (or addition) of periods of time is without end, time
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is infinite in extent, or what is called “eternal.” The eternity
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of the world is entailed by spatiomaterialism, because it assumes
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that existence is in time. That is, spatiomaterialism assumes that
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the world is constituted by substances of kinds that never come into
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existence nor ever go out of existence, but rather endure through
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time. That is what enables it to explain change as really occurring
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as time passes. Given its view of time and existence,
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spatiomaterialism cannot believe that there was a beginning to the
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world, because that would be to hold that something comes from
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nothing. Nor can spatiomaterialism hold that the world stops existing
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at some point, for that would be to hold that what exists can become
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nothing. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Matter.
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</b></i>Given our ontological explanation of quantum mechanics,
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however, matter can be infinite in only one way. The existence of
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ordinary material objects shows that there are finite accumulations
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of matter, and since they are units that can be counted, theorems of
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arithmetic are also true of matter. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
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multiplication (or addition) of matter is without end, matter is
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infinite in extent, that is, the total quantity of matter in the
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world is infinite. There is no reason to doubt that the quantity of
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matter is infinite, if space is infinite, because there is no reason
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to believe that only a finite region of space has bits of matter
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coinciding with it. On the other hand, if space were not infinite,
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matter could not be infinite, at least not ordinary matter, because
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there would be no room for all of it. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We know,
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however, that the division of matter cannot go one without end,
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because the theory of quantum matter holds that each bit of matter is
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constituted by a series of cyclic quantum events, each with the size
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represented by Planck’s constant, <i>h</i>. The spatiomaterialist
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explanation of quantum mechanics is based on the assumption that
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quantum events have a unit-like nature in which they either exist as
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a whole or not at all. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
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force-field matter, such as electromagnetic and gravitational fields,
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may be infinitely divisible. But that is because force field are just
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properties or conditions that are imposed on space by quantum matter,
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and the quantity of matter they contain is already counted in the
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rest masses of the material objects exerting them (except in the case
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of gravitational waves, which are eventually converted in quantum
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events as they accelerate bits of matter). Quantum matter is the
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basic form in which matter endures through time as a substance. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">At
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this point, therefore, spatiomaterialism still takes space and time
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to be infinite in both ways and matter to be infinite in extent,
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though only finitely divisible. The final question in this
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ontological explanation of physics is, therefore, whether
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spatiomaterialism can keep this simple form. Do its assumptions about
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space have to be more complicated in order to acknowledge that space
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and matter are finite in extent? Can its assumption that matter is
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not infinitely divisible be squared with what physics knows about the
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basic objects? And do we have to accept that time is not eternal and
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admit that spatiomaterialism is just an effect of a deeper, theistic
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ontology in order not to give up ontology altogether? These are the
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cosmological questions that spatiomaterialism must answer. The issues
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to be addressed can be separated into two sets, one having to do with
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the finite divisibility of matter and the other having to do with the
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infinite extent of space and time. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Finite
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divisibility of matter.</b></i> Though spatiomaterialism has assumed
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that matter is constituted by cyclic quantum events in order to
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explain the truth of quantum mechanics, it had to take for granted
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that electrons and the nuclei of atoms can be explained in as a form
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of quantum matter. This is clearly not the deepest truth about
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nature, since physics has found other particles like electrons that
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are much heavier, and some that are massless and carry not electric
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charge at all. And it has discovered not only that the atomic nucleus
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is composed of protons and neutrons, but also that such nucleons are
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composed of quarks, not to mention the two short range forces
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involved in the interactions of its basic objects. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The main
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question is not whether the rest masses of the basic objects of
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physics can be explained ontologically as forms of quantum matter.
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There is not much reason to doubt that it is possible to give such a
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spatiomaterialist ontological explanation, though some might find it
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reassuring to see how it works out in more detail. But there is a
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reason to take up the issue of the nature of the most basic objects
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here. It is another opportunity to show the fruitfulness of an
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ontological explanation of the world based on spatiomaterialism. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Physics now
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recognizes some 38 different kinds of basic particles (counting
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antiparticles, but not the three colors of each quark), and though
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they are a far less unruly lot than the particles recognized by
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physics thirty years ago, they are still an odd lot. Part of the
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problem is that the four basic forces of nature have not yet been
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fully unified. Even if we count the so-called electroweak force as
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the unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces, the strong
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force still resists assimilation as part of a single gauge theory,
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and as we have noted, physicists are at wits ends about how to
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represent gravitation as another force of the same kind. Particle
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physicists believe that there must be a deeper theory, but the
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dramatic progress of high energy physics during the 1970’s and 80’s
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has come to a halt in the 1990’s. And they are still pursuing the
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“holy grail” of physics, a single mathematical law from which the
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laws describing all the forces of nature can be derived. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
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possibility that is not even being considered in this effort is
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explanatory ontology. As we shall see, by recognizing that space is a
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substance, it is possible to reduce all the basic particles of
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physics to nine or ten kinds of particles (including antiparticles).
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Indeed, it may even be possible to formulate spatiomaterialism in a
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way that reduces everything to just three basic particles — and
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space, of course, as the substance with which they coincide. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Infinite
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extent of space and time.</b></i> In the direction of very large and
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very long-lasting, spatiomaterialism must be false, if contemporary
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cosmogony is correct, because it is currently assumed that the
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universe began with the big bang and has been expanding ever since.
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Indeed, the prevailing theory implies not only that the universe had
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a beginning in time, but also that space and matter are finite in
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extent. And some even interpret it as imply that the universe might
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simply drop out of existence at some time in the future (if it
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collapses because of gravitation), implying that time is also finite
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in the direction of the future. There are both theoretical and
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empirical reasons for believing that the universe began with a big
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bang and continues to expand, though as we shall see,
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spatiomaterialism can be defended against both.</font></font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">On the
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theoretical side, Einstein showed how his general theory of
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relativity could be used to represent the universe as a whole, and
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with a relatively minor revision, that approach can be used to
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represent the expansion of a universe being contracted by gravitation
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in a mathematically precise way. That is the Einstein-de Sitter
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model, as it is widely accepted by cosmologists as explaining the
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expansion of the universe. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
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empirical reasons are Hubble’s discovery of a correlation in
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galaxies between their red-shift and distance which suggests that
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galaxies are all rushing away from one another, the discovery that
|
||
the proportion of hydrogen and helium in the universe is explained by
|
||
their synthesis shortly after the big bang, and the discovery of a
|
||
cosmic background radiation that seems to be the left over from the
|
||
big bang (with wavelengths elongated by the expansion of space in the
|
||
interim). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Spatiomaterialism
|
||
can, however, be defended against both kinds of reasons. Its critique
|
||
of Einsteinian cosmology is based on the spatiomaterialist
|
||
explanation of the truth of Einstein’s general theory of relativity
|
||
and its explanation of the relationship between gravitation and the
|
||
other basic forces of nature. And spatiomaterialism offers another
|
||
way of explaining all the empirical evidence for the big bang and the
|
||
expansion of the universe. It is an approach to cosmological issues
|
||
that is not even being considered these days. Not only is it a
|
||
plausible defense of spatiomaterialism, but it also illustrates the
|
||
fruitfulness of spatiomaterialism in opening up new ways of
|
||
explaining natural phenomena. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Let
|
||
me emphasize, however, that it is not necessary to defend such a
|
||
cosmological theory in order to spatiomaterialism as the ontology for
|
||
our new way of doing philosophy. What physics has discovered about
|
||
the basic particles does not even suggest that spatiomaterialism is
|
||
false, and like quantum mechanics, we could simply take it for
|
||
granted that a spatiomaterialist theory can be formulated. To be
|
||
sure, big bang cosmogony does contradict spatiomaterialism. But
|
||
scientists generally are not confident enough of its conclusions to
|
||
use them as a reason for dismissing spatiomaterialism out of hand.
|
||
Popular culture seems to be confident of the big bang, and the Church
|
||
has welcomed it warmly. But among scientists, cosmology is still a
|
||
matter of hot dispute. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is, however, a point in carrying this project to the extremes of the
|
||
very small and brief and to the very large and prolonged, because it
|
||
turns up certain advantages of recognizing that space is a substance.
|
||
There are straightforward ways of elaborating spatiomaterialism into
|
||
an ontological explanation of cosmological phenomena, and hopefully
|
||
it will do not harm to suggest them here. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
part the spatiomaterialist ontological explanation of the world is
|
||
even more speculative than its explanation of quantum mechanics. It
|
||
is included here in the spirit of exploration. By offering an
|
||
ontological explanation, I do not suggest that these problems can be
|
||
solved in the end without the use of mathematics to calculate
|
||
quantitatively precise predictions and the attempt to make the
|
||
appropriate measurements. Ontology is a deeper explanation than the
|
||
efficient-cause explanations of empirical science, but it is not a
|
||
substitute for them. An ontology must be able to explain why those
|
||
efficient-cause explanations are true in order to be adequate. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Physics is,
|
||
however, so dependent on the use of mathematics for representing the
|
||
world that it has given up the intuitive insights that would come
|
||
from recognizing that the world is constituted by space as well as
|
||
matter. In explaining the truth of the special theory of relativity,
|
||
the general theory, and quantum mechanics, we have seen how ontology
|
||
offers a more intuitive explanation of these phenomena, one that uses
|
||
our capacity to imagine space and time to think of space and matter
|
||
as substances enduring through time and, thereby, constituting the
|
||
natural world. Thus, it would not be surprising at this point, if,
|
||
together with the enormously powerful constraints that mathematical
|
||
theories impose on what is possible, the attempt to formulate an
|
||
ontological explanation illuminated possibilities in the vague
|
||
darkness that lies beyond what is firmly in the grasp of experimental
|
||
physicists that turn out to be true. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though I
|
||
claim that the following theories are true, I am not claiming that
|
||
the following explanation is the only possible spatiomaterialist
|
||
explanation of cosmological phenomena, nor even that it is the best.
|
||
My only claim is that it is a spatiomaterialist ontological
|
||
explanation, and it does enable us to discuss these issues in a new
|
||
and illuminating way. It explores an avenue that physics will travel,
|
||
when it acknowledges that ontology is explanatory and uses the
|
||
empirical method to infer to the best ontological-cause explanation,
|
||
not just the best efficient-cause explanation. But even before it
|
||
proves itself in that more demanding arena, it is possible to get a
|
||
glimpse of how how the world is whole even at the extremes of the
|
||
very small and the very large.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#993366"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><b>B<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_02" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="36" border="0">asic
|
||
objects.</b></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
Let us first extend this ontological explanation in the direction of
|
||
the very small and the very brief. The place to begin is with the
|
||
so-called “Standard Model” of physics and the inventory of the
|
||
basic forces and particles included in it. (A history of the history
|
||
of particle physics by one of the participants that I would recommend
|
||
is </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Hooft"><font color="#0000ff"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>'t
|
||
Hooft</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1997)). </span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">B<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_03" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="56" border="0">asic
|
||
particles of physics.</font> In order to set the scene for
|
||
inventorying the basic particles of physics, I will first describe
|
||
more fully a basic difference that physics recognizes between two
|
||
kinds of basic objects, fermions and bosons. Gauge field theories
|
||
hold that forces are mediated by bosons, the so-called gauge particle
|
||
of the underlying field, and the next step will be to describe the
|
||
two forces of nature in these terms. That will put us in a position
|
||
to list all the kinds of basic particles currently recognized by
|
||
contemporary physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>F<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_04" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="29" border="0">ermions
|
||
and bosons.</b></i> The most fundamental difference among basic
|
||
objects in space is that between fermions and bosons. (It is basic to
|
||
the Yang-Mills field theories which are currently used to explain the
|
||
basic forces.) This difference is exemplified by electrons and
|
||
photons. As a first approximation, fermions, such as electrons, are
|
||
the material objects on which forces the work, whereas bosons, such
|
||
as photons, are the forces that work on them. Though the difference
|
||
is more subtle, this contrast points to the basic difference in their
|
||
roles. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Fermions
|
||
are basically particles that exclude one another from occupying the
|
||
same quantum state, whereas bosons are particles that tend to fall
|
||
into the same quantum states. To put it more precisely, fermions obey
|
||
the Pauli exclusion principle, while bosons do not. They behave
|
||
according to Bose-Einstein statistics, as opposed to Fermi
|
||
statistics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
difference between them is the kind of intrinsic spin they have. Spin
|
||
is the quantum mechanical version of a rotating object with an
|
||
electric charge. It is a measure of the magnetic moment exerted by
|
||
the particle when a magnetic field is imposed on it. But there are
|
||
two different kinds of spin, distinguishing fermions and bosons. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The Pauli
|
||
exclusion principle holds of any particle with some multiple of ½
|
||
spin (. .-5/2, -3/2, -1/2, 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, , ,) whereas Bose-Einstein
|
||
statistics hold of particles with an even number of spin (. .-2, -1,
|
||
0, 1, 2, . .). The spin indicates the number of different forces the
|
||
particle might exhibit when a magnetic force is imposed on it from a
|
||
certain direction. The number is equal to <i>2s + 1. </i>Thus, a
|
||
particle with 1/2 spin can exert one of two possible forces when
|
||
placed in a magnetic field, either positive or negative (up or down),
|
||
whereas a particle with spin of 1 can have one of three values,
|
||
positive, negative, or zero. Among the basic particles, however,
|
||
there are only three kinds: particles with ½ spin, particles with a
|
||
spin of 1, and particles with a spin of 0. The other values of spin
|
||
come from combining basic particles. (Actually, Yang-Mills field
|
||
theory recognize only particles with a spin of ½ and 1, but it has
|
||
been necessary to add particles with 0 spin in order to explain the
|
||
rest masses of particles.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Fermions
|
||
have the nature that makes them most like ordinary material objects,
|
||
for they exclude one another from occupying the same place at the
|
||
same time. The structure of the atom, for example, depends mainly on
|
||
the Pauli exclusion principle. The various electron orbitals are
|
||
distinct quantum states, and since electrons are fermions, only one
|
||
electron (of each kind) can occupy each orbital. (The reason that
|
||
there are usually two electrons in each orbital is that there are two
|
||
opposite kinds of electrons, spin up and spin down, and one of each
|
||
kind can fit into each orbital.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Bosons are
|
||
the particles that mediate the forces of nature, and they are called
|
||
particles of the underlying field. Whereas basic fermions are
|
||
point-like in the sense that they are located at each moment at a
|
||
certain point in space, bosons have a nature more like space itself,
|
||
because they emerge from the underlying field to mediate its forces. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Particles
|
||
susceptible to a force are said to have a “charge,” but in order
|
||
to conserve the charge so that it does not disappear (or multiply) as
|
||
the particles move and interact, the force field laid out in space
|
||
associated with the charge generates bosons, or forces, that act on
|
||
the particle in certain ways, changing its motion or even its kind.
|
||
This is called “local symmetry,” but it is basically the
|
||
regularities about the particle that must hold in order for the
|
||
“charge” to be unchanged.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">One
|
||
basic difference between electrons and photons does not, however,
|
||
hold generally for fermions and bosons. Electrons have a rest mass,
|
||
whereas photons are massless particles. But this contrast in rest
|
||
mass crosscuts the distinction between fermions and bosons. There are
|
||
massless fermions and massive bosons.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though most
|
||
fermions have rest mass, there is one set of fermions that, as far as
|
||
physics can tell, do not have any rest mass at all. They are called
|
||
“neutrinos,” which are affected only by the weak force (see
|
||
below). Theory does not require them to have a rest mass, and
|
||
experiments have made it clear that the maximum mass they can have is
|
||
about 12 eV.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote1anc" href="#sdendnote1sym"><sup>i</sup></a></sup>
|
||
With a spin of ½, neutrinos should have two possible orientations of
|
||
spin, but in this case, having opposite orientations of spin is what
|
||
distinguishes each kind of neutrino from its antineutrino. Normally,
|
||
antiparticles have opposite electric charges, but neutrinos have no
|
||
electric charge, and the opposite orientation of spin is equivalent
|
||
to having an opposite weak charge. The neutrino has left-handed spin
|
||
in the direction of its motion, and the antineutrino has right-handed
|
||
spin. They are mirror images of one another. (As massless particles,
|
||
the fact that each kind of neutrino has only one orientation of spin,
|
||
despite having a spin of ½, could be explained in much the same way
|
||
as it is explained in the photon: one orientation of spin is lost
|
||
because they move at the velocity of light, because they cannot stop
|
||
to turn around so that they can interact from the other direction.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though
|
||
photons are massless, there are bosons with mass. Mass would be
|
||
expected in bosons that are merely fermions locked together in a way
|
||
that neutralizes (or combines) their opposite orientations of space
|
||
so that they have a net spin that is an even number, such as the
|
||
helium atom. But bosons that are basic particles mediating the forces
|
||
of some underlying field are expected to be massless, and thus, the
|
||
discovery that the bosons mediating one of the basic forces of nature
|
||
have rest mass (the weak force) posed a problem that had to be
|
||
overcome. Let us turn, therefore, to the basic forces of nature. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>B<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAF8AAAAPCAMAAAC1HOMwAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vfxJnVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpyMSZlMSZGPjA4MSYqJR14AABzAABmAABYAAAcGBNLAABEAAANDAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADqSqRYAAABQklEQVR4nL2S0XLEIAhFqYqIYytu3Gyb///Qgkl2t+3Mvtn7YBQvZ5AA/Xr7nKXbtcPS+3Wa+gKXbaYuyn+bJ+UvG4BnTg7uonPjaoZXCkLPR+d/G7YFuvKxINWntHPD8SUexP04Iv/h953PEDIUkeCqCAiEJkWv10akQVhrtoheVtAAjdKFwpdYKWttAZpUV1bLVZj5paUHfxXJ4KhwqPpGgeLBSmOEBr7qMiLEWEPd36S+pkZTM6RPglb/4Js/Yhv8ba8fMjZKDJSblyPR+GIpY9FjYfaexdpwxmFH+hbLg2+XzPzgF4ziG2YOSUsU4Izp4EcefougIIUUo/0q5vjMD1Uv7W0r1tPP9/7o/LCHwIjWA5sfYussalMS7QNlEWRy4Rg10s8+PQQeIabo1TMghz/e+dP0L/yZUv77xzy992+74zi8xCa9IgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" name="TtsOtkCLCos_05" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="31" border="0">asic
|
||
forces of nature.</b></i> Physics recognizes four forces in nature
|
||
(gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the
|
||
weak force), and attempts to knit a mathematical description of them
|
||
into a single, uniform deductive system have used the mathematics of
|
||
gauge field theory (Yang-Mill gauge invariance). Since bosons are the
|
||
kind of particle that emerge from the underlying field to mediate
|
||
those forces, they can be called gauge bosons. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Electromagnetic
|
||
force.</i> We have already seen how the electromagnetic force can be
|
||
explained ontologically, and in passing, I have mentioned the gauge
|
||
field theory of electromagnetic interactions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Basically,
|
||
the electric charge is represented as having an orientation in a
|
||
complex field, and the electromagnetic forces affecting it are what
|
||
is required for local symmetry, that is, for the charge to keep the
|
||
same orientation in the complex field as the particle changes
|
||
location in space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What I have
|
||
described as the force field matter of an object with rest mass is a
|
||
way of referring to the electric charge of such a particle, and the
|
||
gauge field theory about how it works can be explained ontologically
|
||
by thinking of the force field matter of an electric charges as
|
||
something that is imposed on space in a cyclic way as time passes, as
|
||
if the force were sent out from the object in regular pulses. If the
|
||
pulses of all negative charges throughout the universe were
|
||
synchronized, it would be possible to explain what is meant by
|
||
“orientation in a complex field,” for it would be the phase in
|
||
that cycle. Negatively charged particles would all be pulsing at the
|
||
same time, jointly setting up the force field in which they are
|
||
located. The pulses would propagate at the velocity of light, since
|
||
they are mediated by the inherent motion in space. And since the
|
||
force field that acts on the charged object is pulsating, its charge
|
||
must remain synchronized with the field, even though the particle may
|
||
be changing locations in space. Gauge bosons emerge from the field to
|
||
keep the charge synchronized, but they can do so only by exerting
|
||
forces on the particle that can change its motion, accelerating it in
|
||
one direction or another. Those forces are the electric and magnetic
|
||
forces described by Maxwell’s equations, and the gauge boson is the
|
||
virtual photon mentioned in explaining the quantum structure of the
|
||
atom. Virtual photons carry momentum and kinetic energy between
|
||
charged particles and the force-field matter the particles jointly
|
||
spread out in space by their pulses. They are the spin <i>1</i>
|
||
particles that mediate the electromagnetic force. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
difference between positive and negative charges could be explained
|
||
on this ontological explanation as having pulses with opposite phases
|
||
in that universally synchronized cycle. Particles that pulsate in
|
||
phase would repel one another, whereas particles that are pulsing out
|
||
of phase with one another would attract one another. This dependency
|
||
of the direction of the force on the phase of the universal pulsation
|
||
is the reason that there must be virtual bosons to keep charges
|
||
synchronized with the universal pulsation as the charged particles
|
||
move across the force field they help set up (the force-field matter
|
||
that comes from all the particles). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Partial
|
||
electric charges could likewise be explained as phases relative to
|
||
the universal electromagnetic pulsation (or as orientation in the
|
||
complex field) between the extremes of negative an positive. But in
|
||
order to take account of the magnetic force, the complex field in
|
||
which charges are oriented may be twofold, and the pulsation
|
||
correspondingly compounded.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[The
|
||
mathematics of quantum electrodynamics, and gauge field theories
|
||
generally, makes it difficult to figure out how a particle will move
|
||
and interact in the field. Richard Feynman discovered a relatively
|
||
simple way of doing so by identifying the path of least action from
|
||
all the possible paths the particle could follow (which is
|
||
ontologically, the path requiring the fewest quantum cycles). He
|
||
showed how it could be identified by rules for canceling out more
|
||
complicated, symmetrically opposite pathways and seeing what remains.
|
||
This was the foundation for his famous “Feynman diagrams,” which
|
||
depict electromagnetic interactions between particles as being
|
||
mediated by the exchange of photons. But the mathematics involved is
|
||
suspect in the minds of many, because the calculations lead to
|
||
infinite quantities, which can be eliminated only by hand, canceling
|
||
out those that are opposed symmetrically, in a process called
|
||
“renormalization.” There must be a deeper explanation of what is
|
||
going on.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[This
|
||
aspect of quantum electrodynamics and other gauge field theories can
|
||
be explained ontologically, I believe, in a way that involves the
|
||
waves we have assumed are sent out in the inherent motion by quantum
|
||
kinetic cycles. The symmetries that Feynman uses to determine the
|
||
path of least action can ultimately be explained ontologically by the
|
||
constructive and destructive interference of such waves (much as I
|
||
have used them to explain Bohm’s “quantum potential”). But it
|
||
is more complex, because the particle is carrying an electric charge
|
||
through the force field, and if the force field involves a universal
|
||
pulsation which constitutes the difference between positive and
|
||
negative charge, the virtual photons must be synchronized with it in
|
||
order to conserve the electric charge. I suspect there is some such
|
||
ontological explanation, but it would take a better grasp of the
|
||
mathematics than I have.]</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Strong
|
||
force.</i> The strong force is the force that accounts for the
|
||
nucleus of the atom. Being is about 100,000 times stronger as the
|
||
electromagnetic force, it holds protons and neutrons together despite
|
||
the strong repulsive forces among the positively charged protons. The
|
||
strong force does not affect electrons or neutrinos (or other
|
||
particles of their kinds). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
particles involved in the strong force are called “hadrons,” both
|
||
the particles affected by it and the particles whose exchange
|
||
mediates it. The strong force that holds the nucleons together is
|
||
mediated by the exchange of mesons (such as pions). But protons and
|
||
neutrons are only a two of many kinds of “baryons” that have been
|
||
discovered by accelerating particles to collide with one another at
|
||
very high energies, and various kinds of mesons have also been found
|
||
mediating interactions among them. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
neutron, for example, decays into a proton, an electron, and an
|
||
electron antineutrino, and there are many other kinds of baryons that
|
||
decay into protons or neutrinos, with similar kinds of debris. The
|
||
negatively charged pi meson (pion) decays into a negative mu lepton
|
||
(a heavier cousin of the electron) and an mu antineutrino. Again,
|
||
there are many kinds of mesons with various decay patterns, so of
|
||
which decay by way of a pion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The attempt
|
||
to explain the diversity in the kinds of baryons and mesons has led
|
||
to the recognition that hadrons are all composed of simpler objects,
|
||
called “quarks.” Baryons are constituted by triplets of quarks,
|
||
and that mesons are constituted by quark-antiquark pairs. There are
|
||
some six different kinds of quarks, each with an antiquark, though
|
||
only the two lowest energy quarks (<i>u </i>and <i>d</i> quarks) are
|
||
found in the nucleons of ordinary matter. Half the quarks have a
|
||
negative electric charge of 1/3, and half have a positive electric
|
||
charge of 2/3 (with their respective antiquarks having electric
|
||
charges with the opposite sign). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Interactions
|
||
among quarks are mediated by the "color" force. That is,
|
||
quarks have a “color charge” which makes them susceptible to the
|
||
color force, and quarks interact with one another by exchanging
|
||
gluons, the gauge particles of the color force. Gluons are,
|
||
therefore, bosons with an intrinsic spin of 1. They are massless
|
||
particles, like the photon. But unlike the photon, gluons are
|
||
themselves subject to the color force, that is, they exert color
|
||
forces on one another as well as on quarks. Photons, by contrast, do
|
||
not interact at all, except for their tendency as bosons to fall in
|
||
step with one another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The color
|
||
force has an unusual strength that keeps quarks confined in triplets
|
||
to baryons. When quarks are very near one another, the color force is
|
||
not very strong. But when the distance is increased, the color force
|
||
increases along with it. And if the distance increases enough for the
|
||
potential energy (or force-field matter) to constitute a quark and
|
||
antiquark pair, matter takes that form. The quark of the new
|
||
quark-antiquark pair replaces the quark that was being moved out of
|
||
the baryon, and the antiquark combines with the original quark from
|
||
the baryon to constitute a meson, which quickly decays. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order
|
||
for three different quarks of the same kind to help constitute a
|
||
single baryon, there must be three different “colors” of each
|
||
kind of quark. And according to the symmetry of the theory, eight
|
||
kinds of gluons are needed to mediate all the forces that hold among
|
||
three different kinds of quarks in constituting baryons. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Weak
|
||
force.</i> The weak force has long been recognized because of the
|
||
need for some force to explain the radioactive decay of natural
|
||
substances, such as radium. Natural substances send out particles
|
||
with rest mass from time to time which can be detected, and since
|
||
that suggested that they were somehow coming apart, a force was
|
||
needed to explain how it could happen. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The weak
|
||
force was soon also used to explain the decay of hadrons (baryons and
|
||
mesons) into more common particles, such as neutrons, protons,
|
||
electrons, and neutrinos, which were observed in high energy
|
||
collisions of particles in accelerators. Indeed, there are also
|
||
higher energy particles like the electron, such as the muon and tau
|
||
particle, which decay into the electron and an antineutrino (or if
|
||
they are positively charged, decay into a positively charged
|
||
electron, or positron, and neutrino), and those decay patterns were
|
||
also attributed to the weak force. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order to
|
||
explain these decay patterns on the model of gauge field theory, it
|
||
was recognized that every kind of particle carries a “weak charge,”
|
||
which makes it susceptible to the weak force. The weak force is
|
||
mediated by a kind of particle, which was originally called the
|
||
“intermediate vector boson,” but is not referred to as the “weak
|
||
boson” or “weakon.” As the gauge particle of the weak force,
|
||
the weakon is a boson with spin 1, and in order for electric charge
|
||
to be conserved in decay by the weak force, there had to be two
|
||
different kinds of weakons, one with a positive and one with a
|
||
negative charge (W<sup>- </sup><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">and</font>
|
||
W<sup>+)</sup>. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It is
|
||
called the weak force, because it is so much more difficult to make
|
||
particles interact in this way than by the strong force (or even that
|
||
the electromagnetic force, which is about 100 times weaker than the
|
||
strong force). (The weak force is about 10<sup>-6</sup> times the
|
||
strength of the strong force, whereas the electric force is 10<sup>-2</sup>
|
||
times the strong force.) According to recognized principles, the
|
||
weakon could still actually be a force comparable in strength to the
|
||
photon, if the weakness of the weakon were due to having a
|
||
considerable mass. But the assumption that the weakon had such a mass
|
||
spoiled the gauge theory: the weakon could no longer represented by
|
||
Yang-Mills mathematics. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In one of
|
||
the most famous discoveries of the past few decades, Weinberg and
|
||
Salam independently discovered a way to give the weakon a mass
|
||
without spoiling its role as the particle of a gauge theory. This was
|
||
to postulate the so-called Higgs boson and to assume that such
|
||
particles exist everywhere in space. The Higgs boson has a spin of 0,
|
||
lacking any orientation at all in a magnetic field. But to postulate
|
||
their existence everywhere in space was to postulate the existence of
|
||
a new field that has minimum energy when it is exerting a force
|
||
everywhere in space. That force could be used to explain why a boson,
|
||
such as the weakon, that is otherwise massless has a mass. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Weinberg
|
||
recognized that this explanation of the mass of the weakon implied
|
||
that, in addition to the negatively charged and positively charged
|
||
weakons, there is a weakon that does not carry an electric charge at
|
||
all (<i>Z</i><sup><i>0</i></sup>). Interactions involving the <i>Z</i><sup><i>0</i></sup>
|
||
would not change the electric charges of the particles, but only
|
||
their motion, as in an elastic collision, and when evidence for such
|
||
“neutral currents” was found, it was recognized that Weinberg had
|
||
discovered a theory that explained both electromagnetism (how charges
|
||
interact by way of virtual photons) and the weak force (how particles
|
||
generally interact by way of virtual weakons). It is sometimes called
|
||
the “electroweak force.” (The color force, however, resists
|
||
assimilation to that theory. Though it is possible to construct the
|
||
appropriate equations describing gluons as the gauge particle
|
||
mediating interactions among quarks (and gluons), it has not been
|
||
possible to figure out what the equations imply.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Gravitation.
|
||
</i>The success of gauge field theories in representing the other
|
||
forces of nature has led to attempts to represent gravitation as
|
||
force that is likewise mediated by the exchange of particles from an
|
||
underlying field. The “charge” on which the gravitational force
|
||
works is mass, and the gauge particle that mediates the gravitational
|
||
force is called the “graviton.” However, in order to serve this
|
||
function, it must be a boson with a spin of 2, and the attempt to
|
||
integrate this force with the other three forces of nature what has
|
||
led to superstring theory and the belief that there are as many as
|
||
ten dimensions to space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though the
|
||
mathematics of superstring theory is supposedly elegant, the need to
|
||
recognize additional dimensions of space, if nothing else, makes it
|
||
suspect. And it can be avoided, as we have seen, by recognizing that
|
||
space is a basically different kind of substance from matter.
|
||
Assuming that there is an inherent motion in space by which bits of
|
||
matter coincide with parts of space (and that <i>is </i>possible, as
|
||
we have seen, by the spatiomaterialist explanation of the truth of
|
||
Einstein’s special theory of relativity), gravitation can be
|
||
explained as an acceleration of an inherent motion in space. That is
|
||
the spatiomaterialist explanation of Einstein’s general theory of
|
||
relativity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is a
|
||
radical departure from contemporary physics, because without
|
||
recognizing that space is a substance, it has no other way to explain
|
||
gravitation than as just another field that holds among particles.
|
||
That is what leads to the belief that gravitation is mediated by
|
||
gravitons and poses what is the most formidable problem for
|
||
contemporary physics: connecting gravitation with the other forces of
|
||
nature. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Substantivalism
|
||
about space makes it possible, however, to explain basic particles in
|
||
a way that may be similar to superstring theory, but without the
|
||
extra dimensions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_06" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="29" border="0">atalogue
|
||
of basic particles.</b></i> Let us catalogue the basic objects that
|
||
are currently recognized by physics, and then we shall see how we
|
||
might account for all of them quite simply, given our ontology. The
|
||
objects that are currently taken to be basic include both bosons and
|
||
fermions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
bosons are the particles mediating the forces. According to current
|
||
gauge theories, there are bosons for each of the four forces,
|
||
including the graviton to mediate the gravitational forces. (See
|
||
diagram of Basic Particles of Physics.)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="BasicParticles" align="bottom" width="504" height="347" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Current
|
||
explanations of the weak force requires the postulation a Higgs
|
||
boson, with a spin of 0, to give weakons (and other particles) their
|
||
rest masses.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Three
|
||
weakons mediate the weak force: W<sup>+</sup>, W<sup>-</sup>, and Z<sup>0,</sup>
|
||
each with a spin of 1. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The photon
|
||
is the gauge boson that mediates the electromagnetic force. It also
|
||
has a spin of 1. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Eight
|
||
gluons mediate the color force, each with a spin of 1. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
graviton is the boson that is supposed to mediate gravitational
|
||
forces, but it can be set aside, since I have already explained
|
||
gravitation without the need for any such particle.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Fermions
|
||
are particles that obey the Pauli exclusion principle and have a
|
||
point-like location in space. There are two broad classes, leptons
|
||
and hadrons. The hadrons are distinguished by their susceptibility to
|
||
the strong force, while leptons are immune. Electrons are the most
|
||
famous members of the lepton group. Their masses are well defined,
|
||
and their name, meaning “light ones,” comes from being so much
|
||
lighter particles than hadrons (and even than quarks). But some
|
||
physicists suspect that neutrinos may not be quite massless. There
|
||
are six leptons in all, and each has an antiparticle. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The first
|
||
family of leptons includes the electron and the electron neutrino.
|
||
The electron has a charge of –1 and a mass of 0.5 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>,
|
||
whereas the electron neutrino has no charge and there is not much
|
||
reason to believe it has any mass at all. The antiparticle of the
|
||
electron is the positive electron, or positron, with a charge of +1,
|
||
and the antiparticle of the electron neutrino is the electron
|
||
antineutrino, with neither charge nor rest mass. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The second
|
||
lepton family is composed of the muon and the muon neutrino. The muon
|
||
has a negative charge and a mass of about 106 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>,whereas
|
||
the muon neutrino has no charge and no rest mass. Again, both members
|
||
of this family of leptons have an antiparticle, the positively
|
||
charged muon and the muon antineutrino, without any charge or rest
|
||
mass. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The third
|
||
lepton family is composed of the tau particle, with a negative charge
|
||
and a mass of 1784 MeV/c<sup>2</sup> and the tau neutrino. Both have
|
||
antiparticles with properties similar to the first two families of
|
||
leptons. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Hadrons
|
||
are the objects affected by the strong force, and they are made of
|
||
quarks, as we have seen. (Baryons have three quarks each, whereas
|
||
mesons are made up of a quark and antiquark.) Let us inventory the
|
||
quarks, since hadrons have already been reduced to them. Most
|
||
commentators are struck by how the quarks also fall into three
|
||
families, with two particles each, both with antiparticles. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The first
|
||
family of quarks includes the d and u quarks, and an antiparticle for
|
||
each. The d quark has a charge of -1/3, while the u quark has a
|
||
charge of +2/3, setting the pattern for all three families. The
|
||
masses of quarks are not well defined, because they cannot be
|
||
released from confinement in baryons or mesons, but the d and u
|
||
quarks do not appear to be over 100MeV/c<sup>2</sup> (and may be
|
||
considerably less). Their antiparticles are antiquarks, with opposite
|
||
electric charges, that is, anti-d, with +1/3 and anti-u, with –2/3.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The second
|
||
family includes the s quark and the c quark, and their antiparticles.
|
||
The s quark, with a charge of –1/3, resembles the d quark, but it
|
||
has a mass of about 200 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>. The c quark likewise
|
||
resembles the u quark, except it has a mass of about 2000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>.
|
||
Their antiquarks have the same masses, but opposite electric charges.
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The third
|
||
family includes the b and t quarks. The b quark resembles the d and s
|
||
quarks, with a charge of –1/3, while the t quark, with a charge of
|
||
+2/3, resembles the u and c quarks. Again the main difference is in
|
||
mass. The b quark has a mass of about 5000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>, while
|
||
the t quark has a mass of about 175000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>. Their
|
||
antiquarks have opposite electric charges. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
accompanying diagram listing all the basic particles recognized by
|
||
physics suggests the deep symmetry that is believed to hold between
|
||
the quarks and leptons. Each has three families; two members have
|
||
different electric charges; all particles have antiparticles, and all
|
||
are subject to the weak force. Together with the bosons required for
|
||
the three forces of nature, including gravitation, there is a total
|
||
of 38 particles. (But there are only 37 to explain, since gravitation
|
||
has already been explained by the nature of space as a substance.)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote1">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote1sym" href="#sdendnote1anc">i</a>
|
||
Fermi postulated the neutrino as massless, and the only reasons for
|
||
thinking it has a mass at all is that makes it possible to fit them
|
||
into the current gauge theories of the basic forces more easily and
|
||
if they have a mass, it may mean that there is enough mass in the
|
||
universe for gravitation to cause a contraction, or at least, bring
|
||
the expansion to an end. Neither of these reasons carry any weight
|
||
on our approach, and thus, we assume that neutrinos are massless and
|
||
travel at the velocity of light.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</body>
|
||
</html> |