1252 lines
138 KiB
HTML
1252 lines
138 KiB
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<title>A spatiomaterialist theory of basic particles</title>
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<meta name="author" content="Amr Gharbeia">
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">A<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_07" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="56" border="0">
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spatiomaterialist theory of basic particles.</font> The basic
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particles of physics are described by mathematical theories, which
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have been accepted as the best efficient-cause explanation of
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precise, surprising measurements, and they constrain what can be said
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about basic particles in many subtle ways. What I will present here
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is, by contrast, a mostly geometrical story about the basic
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particles, or rather, the beginnings of a geometrical theory. It
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comes from using spatiomaterialism and its explanation of other parts
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of physics to constrain further our beliefs about the basic
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particles. They must be constituted by bits of matter that coincide
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with space in some way or another, and since space has a three
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dimensional geometrical structure with an inherent motion connecting
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all the parts of space in time, these most basic forms of matter must
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have a spatio-temporal structure of some kind. What is presented here
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is one way that could be true. There may be other ways it could be
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true. And the one presented here is merely the model for a set of
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more specific theories that may be elaborated in different ways. My
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purpose is to show how adding the ontological constraints of
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spatiomaterialism to the mathematical constraints of the standard
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model opens up the possibility of a geometrical model of the basic
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particles.</font></font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
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is, once again, an ontological explanation of why current theories
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about the basic particles are true, and its advantage over purely
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mathematical theories is that it reduces the number of basic
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assumptions that need to be made. To be sure, spatiomaterialism makes
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a big assumption that contemporary physics does not make — that
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space is a substance enduring through time, indeed, one with an
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inherent motion. But that will enable us to reduce the 37 particles
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recognized as basic by contemporary physics to, at most, only ten
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particles. Or even fewer, it might be argued, though that issue can
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be put off until we discover whether such ontologically based
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speculation is useful. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The ten
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basic particles we shall postulate are the photon, the three weakons,
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<i>W</i><sup><i>-</i></sup>, <i>W</i><sup><i>+</i></sup>, and <i>Z</i><sup><i>0</i></sup>,
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three neutrinos, electron, muon and tau, and their three
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antineutrinos. In one way or another, each involves a new assumption
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about the nature of matter, space and how they are related. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But it is
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conceivable that the photon can be explained as another form of
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weakon, and the six neutrinos may be just properties of space, that
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is, aspects of its relationship to weakon. Hence, a spatiomaterialist
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world may be made of nothing but space and three kinds of weakons. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
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explanation of the nature of the basic particles is based on the
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assumptions we have already made about the nature of matter in order
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to explain the truth of the basic laws of classical physics,
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relativity theory, and quantum mechanics. Quantum matter is
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ultimately constituted by quantum events, which are basic and can
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coincide with space in various ways, and since they are cyclic, they
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constitute bits of matter that endure through time. The total energy
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or mass of a bit of quantum matter is simply the number of quantum
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cycles per second that constitute its existence. Since the photon is
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the simplest and plainest form of quantum event that we considered,
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let me recall what has been said about it.</font></font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">An
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independently existing photon is a complete cycle of electric and
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magnetic forces. Those forces interact in a way that enables them to
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be repeated indefinitely. But since each cycle is a quantum event
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with the size of Planck’s constant, <i>h</i>, it either occurs as a
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whole or not at all. The total energy, or matter, in a photon depends
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on the number of cycles per second, as required by the physical law,
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<i>E = hf.</i> But the photon coincides with space in a way
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that makes it move with the inherent motion in some direction of
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space. Thus, it also has a wavelength, <font face="Symbol, serif"><i></i></font><font face="Symbol, serif"></font>
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which is inversely proportional to its momentum, as required by the
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equation, <i>p = h/</i><font face="Symbol, serif"><i></i></font><font face="Symbol, serif"></font></font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The photon
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has an intrinsic spin of 1, which implies that there are three
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different ways it could be oriented in a magnetic field. Two faces
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have a magnetic moment, positive or negative, corresponding to the
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two ways that light can be polarized. (If you follow the photon
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through space, the electric force rotates around to the right or left
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in space, which determines it circular polarization, but the
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difference between these properties is quantum mechanically
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equivalent to photons being polarized in mutually perpendicular
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directions as they pass through a filter.) And the third way that a
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spin 1 boson can interact in a magnetic field involves having no
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magnetic moment at all, as if there were a face in which the two
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possible orientations of spin were perfectly balanced. But the photon
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apparently loses the ability to interact from that “zero face,”
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as I will call it, because it is moving through space with the
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inherent motion. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though the
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photon has energy, it has no rest mass. It might make it seem that
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its energy must come from its motion across space, like a form of
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kinetic energy. But that is not quite right, if its motion is due to
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the inherent motion in space. We are assuming that its energy comes
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from the cycles of quantum actions that are carried out by the
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exertion of electric and magnetic forces. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The photon
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is the gauge boson of the electromagnetic field, and on our
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ontological interpretation of gauge field theories, that means that
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electric and magnetic forces arise from space to act on a particle
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with an electric charge when it moves across space. At rest, the
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charged particle is a pulsating force in the surrounding space, which
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is synchronized with the pulsations of particles with the same charge
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throughout the universe (and 180<sup>0</sup> out of phase with the
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pulsations of particles with the opposite charge). Since a magnetic
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force is also involved, it is a complex pulsation, perhaps, with
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internal cycles in two different planes. The electric and magnetic
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forces that arise from space to keep its pulsations in synch as the
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charged particle moves across space are the electric and magnetic
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forces, which were described by Maxwell. They are the same forces
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that can be coupled and exist independently as photons (for example,
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as a result of charged objects oscillating back and forth, as in
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antennas).</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
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photon introduces most of the properties that basic objects have, and
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in order to explain the other basic particles, we must postulate the
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existence of two other varieties of particles, weakons and neutrinos.
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All the other particles, both charged leptons and quarks, will be
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explained as combinations of neutrinos and weakons. The interaction
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between them is the weak force, on this ontological theory. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>W<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAE8AAAAPCAMAAACSsmLYAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpyMSZlMSZGPjA4MSYqJR18AAB2AABmAABYAAAcGBNLAABEAAANDAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADzBJNpAAAAyUlEQVR4nLXT2wrCMBAE0Gmz2WyIJtF66///qLOi4FsLxqHQtAuHSUNxGhuc1qHBecXArFjo6QQR3r4n+QfPIkpFtO9J+8EL2b0s0NYFobfsnhZM1ZdWW2Hh1sJOD202C2zUJFbyduUy0kiKErw+Z31bc291ryYRo3Q1U2iVTq/zc5q8L3piPe71Egs9EhGVhGTR+6EohPT09rJY2rvfmV10BqZkwXepr8M2Hrvxrcz+FE03uY83LP/wxv5vy+E4MAcsl9t9WG6XJ6YcJ00YiSp9AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCLCos_08" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="33" border="0">eakons.
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</b></i>The nature of weakons can be described in much the same terms
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that were used to describe the photon above. Weakons are also spin 1
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bosons, for they are the gauge particles of the weak force. Given or
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theory about the nature of quantum matter, we assume that weakons are
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constituted by cycles of quantum events, and thus, what makes them
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different from photons is presumably coinciding with space in a
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different way. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Rest
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mass.</i> One basic difference between photons and weakons is that
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weakons have a rest mass, whereas photons are massless. Indeed,
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weakons have a sizable rest mass, about 80,000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup> for
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the charged weakons and over 90,000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup> for the neutral
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weakon. That is nearly one hundred times the rest mass of the proton.
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</font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Rest mass
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is the property that made it impossible to explain weakons as the
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gauge particle of the weak field on the model of photons in the
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electromagnetic field, since gauge bosons are massless, according to
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Yang-Mills field theory. What makes Yang-Mills field theory so
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attractive is that particles interact the same way regardless of
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scale. They are, in other words, “gauge invariant.” But if one
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simply assumes that gauge particles have a rest mass, then the
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particles are no longer invariant under a gauge transformation. When
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the relevant particles are described on a much smaller scale, as if
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we were looking at them through a microscope, their mass decreases to
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the vanishing point. Mass in not gauge invariant. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order to
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give the gauge particle of the weak field a rest mass, therefore,
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physicists postulate another kind of particle, the Higgs boson, which
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is the gauge boson of yet another field. Unlike the weakon and the
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photon, which have a spin of 1, the Higgs boson has a spin of 0,
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meaning that it does not line up at all in the magnetic field. But it
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gives weakons a mass, only if Higgs bosons are located everywhere in
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space. Thus, it is assumed that the Higgs field is in a condition of
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least energy when there are Higgs particles everywhere. But the Higgs
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boson is a force with a certain strength (which enables the weakon to
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resist acceleration so that it tends to stay at rest), and so that is
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to say that the Higgs field has least energy when its force is
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strongest everywhere. This is paradoxical, because the energy
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associated with every other force of nature increases with the
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strength of the force. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Notice,
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however, that although this description of what gives the weakon a
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rest mass is paradoxical only when it is assumed that it is a
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description of matter. It is not paradoxical at all as a description
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of space. Space has no energy (it is not matter), but since it is a
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substance, it can exert a force. If the weakon’s relationship to
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space is what gives it a rest mass, it is not surprising that the
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force is exerted everywhere. Nor is it surprising that that is the
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condition of least energy, because it does not involve any energy at
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all. Thus, since we have already postulated the existence of space as
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a substance for other reasons, we can explain the rest mass of
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weakons without postulating Higgs bosons. We can take talk of Higgs
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particles to be a way of referring to space.</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
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function of the Higgs mechanism can be served by recognizing that
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quantum cycle have another way of coinciding with space. Instead of
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being picked up by the inherent motion and laying out their cycles as
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a certain wavelength in space, the quantum cycles of weakons have a
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purely rotational motion, and so they can be at rest in space. We
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assume that when quantum cycles coincide with space at rest, their
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matter has the form of rest mass, that is, the matter resists
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acceleration by a force. Weakons can, of course, be accelerated, and
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their rest mass determines, as we have seen, the scale of the quantum
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kinetic cycles that move these particles across space as time passes.
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But that role of rest mass comes from their relationship to space,
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not to Higgs bosons.</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Like
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photons, weakons are bosons with an intrinsic spin of 1. That means
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that there are three different ways that a weakon and interact in a
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magnetic field. That means, as we shall assume, that each and every
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weakon has all three ways of interacting, and which way they interact
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depends on how they are oriented in the field. Taken geometrically,
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each way of interacting in a magnetic field can be pictured as a
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different <i>face </i>of the particle.</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><img 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Pm+JWbHKjg+90VeyijZwmm16U/7IEuAqfxLEcuTk2WYu4nZsQoaLvYSSlARiFs22ZrLtAI85GSZiFOR5i030ONMqPxwZAzho3f5G4oZMKaJyTIEImbHQAwbh+uUoM6BFAjfjTMQ9yfQZBllU9GEuGYhAUpQYbuYVputHHQeiOOln8NuZm8HGggX1nGgzyEjB/lcIl91kM9hQA7syfAkdBzYc8iRg3ouqUC+JyexS5UeSCA8k1ftzUnsSq0HkcdAlrtHJzEHgpI1Dtq2B+3YpXoPGo/8IeCencXsKz5QQPKMg7a/5HbsYs0HiUfx/MgensUEVS8sDHmLxYEBUmQc4suX147p6l7IyHSl7aEMnzzc07MYo3JJ4RUhuUwOBJChxkE7vJx2TFe7AuNVkITJBGXtqZSYWd/j0yhTfUzjVVUkk/GK2lMZaRxir+KvHLr7P3vBQtNnekPzyDZGOASGI0IkE5XIfudR8rLTsL0CZvqmcmOjELwAOMM7Z4c3M0UDSRwliZm8khDZ10DKGQftOeQ7fDCMbuXCxyrpBhIrCCy82dGXd7DHt0lO09bir1QcEsbrJIJKykj2M49xrsmOACKe3vE1eQMJPbtHN2+JO9jj2ySnkYImZFxVDOP1mAmZySv7HUh546C9h32J6vezT1vJu+nY7G5uzGvDwqBxEIZjUiQTMhLadVY8DsUyk+LGo1EZAUTEEMFBPm1lmSbe7OjLO9hnc7dpthEL+cZxLC1pIjMBcigrU5Y3we0jQ4+IsyyME3QDiWbjI1dOxZJ3sFuzSbiUVijjv7RxEIQTsURIjogEeAY8BmhMyWSYcRSWvk8cr2hGPCfySiqtil2VIHHy5MkYCRHBOPIKn3bl8VhFh6VMiaSYxlDkZYC4g05ptus9oMMZhJFnHCcTiY2EiPBpXzSZoZGGMnZpQ4xjhBWWAMJyHmubZr2H7BRhCkU8GM/E8cg2ToG88w78IiYJEV44AVxKUjheI5kCSRlXlTXD+NihJasLQITdwMM71WnZl0nXexgCQpkYOZLNqhQap0794+OPP/mYmJCRwD5HjnB1gDi+KDp6TRVFZ6XLKhE5hpjhCANRF4AI5J3qtOzLROs9ZPX/ygAJZTCephHjeOcf/0Ag127dOJsQOXqUU2Avp7ECPcU0/ieSmMkYRIamVSkcg2ZIxw8vvmABCH+S9R7S07V5ciSeGXl9wDgSHADkk2s3bn355T/Qb4nIzjGMTGwikZpiGm+gxEzKExkx5hhphpWRQPIWgKBlX8Ze7yE9sMhSOJKwUGGkjUPiIAO58eU3P/zwMRFBG+Ei05rMRBQeEsabKBJKeSKjxhy5dpi2wkMjQ3rOAhC07Mu46z1kZwizFBQUAzRkII9xCAMBIL+uShvhItOa0ELSPJDFEoiEQjqLFDakkNED8jw7VK3wcCkgMxIRPJQZwpSoE1TRKDxFQzEO5PHJjRu3kMevv35IcQSAvD65icR6kjiWEpFIEiMpKqPEgFwxj8QOEyuUNbwkIAqOLIBBFMr4TwaOd1QcwCMykF9/+1qaiEh9JwKi2gfxWD63snL58uWVc2eWl5FJRKTQa5WarZL2EeGQdijMMHaMh/mMJtBGiMpjUP0pOZHAkLYRGUdkHcTj1jffEpDfrgoTOSZMZJKwrigK1LR05uLlm5+R3FxfOUdIVCKDx5ecrcrwWErZYWyFfNwRz0QS8ZA4hoFIBuOnBl0V4bh27dqNyEB+/e3h94qJTOSzFIcFPMA6JA6S9ZX3UWHgVgqcVumpXBX7G2SGF1dALp5bJiRRqOJjj0EnEpXHgP5PFLHI0pDWcYN4/J8E8jA2kQnDeorHEpjH559//tlNFLKSlXPLxUTKT+Wq2JH7xZV1AX59/eIZyRyr4KNyh6xMEnOkgcQ4CjCkWLyTiRsEQ1gH+Ksvv/k2BnIvNpGJgCSaQh7nkMdn65cvgFxev/n5Vz/++MWVj84vC5+SBjLWdY7EQJDH+xEOhC8co3BbfGQyl5HJcoAUjwyBLIkIxscfF9EAHmQgEkiFfziNz0p6LvB4H3ncvHzh+CLK6ZX1H/8A6fV6W72elyYy3nUOBTuEj/cVtwhIbpKREBFeGKnyZRoeR2IeGf1nUBAMRT75ROK4cUPwABxkIBTTH3599v5/P0SfNWGeJTUlAsgK8lh5e1HK8dM//oiAoAe/d/48dOBo+Db2RcCUXzxDPG5eBju8LBKI9RVJhI9Kr9MyMQ8Agrku8rh++/b1QQaSRBpFTOOaMA5pHcjjuxjI6urXt/8rTOTo0VfH9lmRK4Geu7R0bh2Uc/n0YiLuF4ToXBJGCMe4KjiUwY4MLhD3ty9Q0BJE3uBxpCpX7pQOC3jcdl33jtO6/mHCQA69P8mySEwjoSFwfPOtAuTs3Z/fueNNHEQSIJD4oKZSPBbdT4XRnImSX8iD+IC26iVqORxjv0jYpVtEJOuxjfDBSDVMJhxERgYCPO54vz9//uzZT59e+dcnaVERKHIt8VREA60DcHz3fzGQVx89Onv2v3fiIDI+kDiCoIHcjBVF0rlyGnvw+kUxHMnXVqlJk8hAls6skH0k1Ry/cBm3XIxGPKVNZBqHJQzktvfiBfB4+vTxbetf11TJAXHtWopGbByAQwDBmP7b12cfPVo9dXbzShLVx2mdYiAiglx+ezENZPE0qgvCyJKSaaXK+IA/4U9atVK1oIGgyaWwHycbwSqW3iiCniOTTrIkEeRs94UA8vjx4/uX/nUjEYkkxUjASGxDwaFYyOrVR482Tp1aXZts9kT1WGdQ82kDWexcWly8sI5Oa3n5zQIT4U+ePOF//vnvDwoXmUr7RVR+GvtxUcWZsUxkKh7CQO78l4Agj0cPrjdVIjdUBrHcUjyVQkMF8uHXjx5vqEPDsYEkHgt9UyqCLC56AOT4inRaBSYigTz5z3/++UGJWlD3F9K1LL4tItUwv/hBI/33xJOQWQN5Dg7r0aMHD75fW7tRLLciUWgkOBIgD08+ePz4bjQ0nBwIeSzsumkDWew24Rc5rbSJpFTzBIk8ASD/+/+qo2u5+XnWQKIqLp8rNhE+s+fYEcgRCul3NqWBII+ff/7+0sYtRVIYEhh5NFQgjx49fnpvFkCWlkjtizlAFi+giURRZEBbCpD8dEuZC1haJr+Y5YF+EadpCqFjJbyjxKnpDER4rE7ksYjHzz/fbX55q0i+/HIIjRgIjNOnA5JSFaok47EW33uLPEpsIjk+S+N/YvdFIP8srOUQ5VjkF3NqWYz8YiF0jfzik07kEye/apLkvCc65LEAiODxMzitL2NJcYhh5NOIs6w8IGPlvaqqzqAbH/Alsv+StmKHkiir4QY7nEsg/y6uJQohy5hjZf1i4rSKoFcaXFrhv/+JZjLFVazEY616UY4lePz8/V329Zd58o2UIhozBXI46bug9DxVJSYCaWkyf1KptXoEY4f/Sdr6T1HmOxCo8qo4noL+Wias16VfBLf4v/+carm3zCAEDOTpI2kg34OJfBOLSkKwKIKBOKIQMguXpfbdfB6LixSKzyRJUK21uY00dsIO06SyClKsVKAqCiFoIiKKCOgDJoJ1/CmAFGQOZXlEQE7c6UoDSYDcZd9k5NtIilGQ/DBbIEP7bqwt4eFf+59mZ4tMo79papGynvCCAFIiUEXQsQFn1MxXKUQGKgQycqJmmCghBEchEsgDCeTepY1vB2U4igQHTpw8ePT4pQA5Ln3Wm+fdoE8wfDtWzAfk4IdVEgeqZYzpBYHqNI5QkuFO4rPAN4o49ScHIIWGWEqSEIJAyGOpQDaakb5HeCiFxA8SB/IgA3l6d+KBoZr1ruRkvYlcQFwf/bJNQWOr0zic8Se8WE/ZzKEoUB2PA5VqIvW2TBsoUBVmcmUlCSEn7vweAXn0MAJyj31fiGHARf2g4vhN4EADeSZH6hNcoSoP5DTmYF+AakLPeivrTyDkDsl7lMxhmYAUQscvE58FlTCPnGPfN2Wg+s+/pwkglQyQ52JiEYA8jIBcujqSRopDJJLHY+TxbPXUqRMKkDGaVxLIW813j6Pzv9L54nzuuK3Ghzh2Fci5YUDeTgIV5HJR3hB6DCFIIFMFkIoC5EQE5LECBHxW5dYQGjkofhPyEOQBuivg8ezsxBfVSwA5bnZCvtNZjIJIdiRSvpKRQBSf9V6bUuqdoF2X5yOGhtMFkMpoIKu1UzeG08igeCjlwYMHjx4hjWfP78cxfewrhqOC+rtfiKHG9qfoTz67vLycDKTHrmQkkKiOj7xQ5A2pOX2c5f9g2sUBlCQrH8jZxtVjAzYS00ixeKgIwMD48fTZ8+fPXyghZJq5xYtZIJeiEO6+tyiCyLocSI9zlXUcIKchB1s/jzR2trvN1zJ1fDCD5cdTQDwFiCTyr2Nra7eO3cgzjqyDIqMQIAgGyrPnMPh/cXbyO+VSQFRdvStzm23/ylvSwWNUX17OHyWMrkTGkPeHAqEg8lEfRpvnx6yjrKSAdGIgkYncW13duPTdjVO3BowjDtyKg1JICHlKQO7HSe/49zgMxFvMSN+64lM05QGZRuTgUVnvFwzbSlcyJMtqepuXKIicPz9BoCopKpDrnTjLioGc3bjLvvvulozsqnFEgTsxi8cqCiEE5MOTyt3W4wPJTC4yd4sGftvdS5nhgjJWHxuIMjDMHYe89ekmuMedT1eUKbPXdgOIGtTX3AEgG2fv3WX3gMjHA8ZBhpG2iqeJPBMCAeTF9ZMnlZutx7wtK62rr378Q4zCe5++O9iDsfdenB7I4Ej93Tijehej+mSBqqwoQE46EkgS1T+8eu9e82vVVyXGkTKKLAmQp/fvb2ysriYPtR2d4O73ZJpp2RKpDYzCm2/lupQk753MZeXPZV3qbouM6lOslaI6Bqr82ylmIMrA8CSkWQmQhwhk9S4MDTeyvkrahgri2TOVxN2Nq6tn6clo8USbfOxz4htJX4uy237vx3wYUwGpZIDEo523rgjTSNzj22hAE2UOZSUF5KcsEBiq3720ofgq1ThSICC9fU4okMQ70V2PA4sHjP14CJwy68rs9peviueZFsVk7KRA0tPvl4WjolkRSKoV90iZw5ndBbJAd/ViVL+dSbOQx727a1dzjUPCeC7k2eP7G1c/VFCIZQNODiyvMaaB6EIrfPuX1jKlpEVT4zMCgsNPpA6Oimj0Ps1YJKVyuw0kSrNW24NA7t5dW1NxxMaRwAC7QBZpEupqJ2JNoPTSciVEs4RWOAz8RMBdL7x4NK3LUi6DffbVjz2Rx3nNQXOcOJUrKwuqz2r//kyN6hGQVCCPjQMzqBfPf9pYTXkoBYWkcSxZNas8j6ohL2uEXvNwajYr93r3LIBQmrX0USeUppGTxy1OkcqVFgGEi6HhnTiI0H1AEZDfIl/1WDWOFy+ebsSWkUUhYag4yhtIw9sWk9otPXUrad6dcrPQlazkjZaYi+n/8UVh6vAygCy8yrkIImvt58+kzyIg9wSQKHI8ShvH/dU4kRo0ixiGWOdvLB4Ve2cHslua1E7d5nCm+IK38CafTehNYGfdFhlVCKlD/oXJ3pUEyFLH3D0gnEc+64TwWY+JCFnIXQQi5gqlrxK28eKn62cTGoMojimrLh4dWJt0lDTayTSqOkhYyrnbOpbjeIF1oqmTSqXuiunb4IvzYsosr453/fci6sue9+ZuAeH8lVeii7gnbt9RgAiPBWnvo8RXCRovwDiUtDbFIr0E5lF1qdiJV3FInjCk5xHygcSTi2OO2apmNPRrvYE3v58prOPKZhTUPW/XXBZXH5868SGaiAwiChAlcgCN3zeEcaQSqRSLo8nCvUdy17ceR1SflXdneiQXJpl+r9m+yB06jfTd77mpg9cmIOd/6SzvEhCcwJd5lpzxvSOA4K1Agsfd5n26DBv7qqvvqJ4qx0NFKOTK1hGOSZfKUnwWJKV5t6YLSYYhJef9qg1XDP16tj4wzZ+bOry1dQWBAI/dCeo8XkYxeoDqxKqTBbLBaNY27asi41Bh5KAQNKbCUUk/K3Cm0ETeHjv/wdQBrzNp2TqKhztN/6vPvvrjl8kC1SiJLm8tKCZyDKNIBEQYyHX2NIoczyDLzRpHKlqkULyqvrNimoamMl9hIjkOhe46OTeOquztwDWqA3XIJxnz/eIXf3z+xx9nxI1AM57tTa/6Gg8Ozzo/PRVB5GfisbG2JrLcF79fVY0joZFa5l0hEb8/ZBZrkcbdlx5rWx8kcpxMJ3vP1Ph10HCnOHVY+SP8Y2V5ubxfLCs8zUM+pk5PRTtPhYn8/D3y2GC3M6EjMwJPEqkEhbpa4wwam9YWzf4NuHi6lTTvrsLydSjQC1OHy1/9+NnFiW5tGSrZi/Gx00Ibce4QEYwhwOM6GwwdqnEkb6UYQDELFiRZE8khot6aPpFzz6QOA0/7Cnl7V6ayBu+NUB/EPUZOSwR1ANK8/eL57Sh0ZI0jHmRkWMyilaokJoLjBPG4X5qIfL6p8EHcUnUoqQMOQHMSrQt4farodutJJedWFbk4k1zLYc3+6akM6htr7PfbZ/ONQ6WxayiEJCYSrz+TJqI+ATjOg/15dURR5LOVAad1fPAplKnPreDWodRqJ2v2bQCCWe91dv1UDg5lPmRmoXuoxA4F+i+GEVqB5vTxhMfwx3BLVjEydUgFqpnwKLqTK7M+05p9/T56rDW2lklzhXUkA/AZZLVl5JBKZGlZrtG0IpCI1Uiip8hfmySkJ3XEq0ChyWUyreNDHxCZQIbcWBetKCeJnL1+CYSxtZMDg46jR9PzIbtPAyXSllg9aVku8rd+eeXChRX6LNefmeLeg5RfXBbrnZxO2YhcoGC6ahQZep9jhsixE2tra6vZy36Jr3qpNCrZ9d6W4nX+lHXlUusBTaKptBWi00onc9lH1SespqxERGSulXkLSJJXzWB2ahJJE8ElxtaVpRfXIx7TxNqkijeiTEtZEyhZzOHNMcaeuoPvPCoUw6f3V1jRLdqWb2jxE6MqkZwX5aRCx8vGUcmuUbm0tHQuRnJzhRZ8eyNnlb9xq1AWdxRGGAWqxdPZZaBKVcM8ln2joSq+WH0lZhZUlCXIF1JEXs/SSF/ZeMk0KtlVdWlN3TO0fO8KrYKZLBs6uWs/lCYi1/lbX7lw+vTpyxhTEodVNoKQeo0A31ABvz0wicCmL+ilFkbfJ9sAIPSF1fcr+H49KRERde3ezGW/vTEOITlEMgvrFq0UO1YVKSLrcaAiNpcvJg6rJJDQB/0aTlipeHpFq3gmC+gLeqlF9G4wACK+8AVC5kgzSZCk30a4p74qlkOxvshtqUtPv1FuufFSVShEluMlm4kL8ZCZdcl6yEKsLouU7ztO9N4E5WVt+NoE+kIC0VnkwxQjidd/V0bke4mjUv4dCdPVoC5qvqwEKlqy+c285WiHCAGxHRMsxHGZjb8EEHqphQJEfIHW1DXVAhZiJPEbEqKJ3D2mgRIRORy/S0J9i0iJFySUqiFe9p+M5P2LK+sgKxffX1J4lA1U4qUUtoXJlOUY+EvqG19qEb0jDOM+fSF2S5WAWh94h0iOcehYCIMaDDawTpvlz/A1vClRiRS9Z2f6GtQXY+S9iGEmFZUXiSSCUjA/YnK/ovM+Dv8HgDh85MtKJpVDMZIhr8CZugbFLUbJQ/pVJeUrynlbm7rNGui6OS/Wk5OFmet+mZ00zisW5wbjmDVYvo/ZnOv7niGA2A5wsn0fDdSxbN8rXO9wTFGQHC54SdT0FSReMQpUb04YqPLesapsGxw15jqXhazklcqNbsBth4PLc7nb5UAkdNx+SEAcbsnNJhpREHKv5BmMlEMpJIdTOGbiRrKBatLXXZGI9+MF+NZupwsDERyO9LEHB6yi+X4ogLj0Wr1uQK8NK3in3qhLHA63+07Q7aJ76oeOwzFlc/0+x68c0n8/AEPqAhAf/p/B63gjOXQoDSX+e5blRwY41QvhKvL9eLrtQyKFryfG4QimV8zsViDUSwshAKCtLgEp/U69lBg84Mzt9wF3hQMQx4K4Agk3AQlJ//hL/ZmdHMqV2RY/GKhem8Az0uvY9MD0WPz6PDIC1Jd4gx4KcwIz+bLkO/Wy0oeQzjhaQKXLHQbZGliGGRIQkzwY+CsH/589kBwku1C6GqgmjVSkXKPL/AiIQ4MS34JBCaPNKDAIsSshc+1pgHSRRR8VXtE8oONUtICHAgjT+twAC+QcM4rdAIKySzSUojOBaoLEQbwfz7RNPXqjNw1KNBsHJbQZxQR7qQQ2DUPKvVPv7yfZQDXzSDUgu9Bld0WMaAg6bB+/NfuKdzlQHVjxeajlejxl/KkPuwo0TNjgPIMy0TAcR84r0/8W4nMY6hAQ1vVdDceZ9KP73LMQhWUJIJZjdruoSzkeLSGmCHKxiGoc9ZJSBobSM6xJIu9fQHwOY1DUA2TVrhzW4I8R8sCFPK8PnxkOT8GUIKtIxqMlxON4APA0XR9KsCB/1wlItKWitf1NKIu1dfpp0R6Wo9Pv5MiK4c1uMmKfi891QOJTcu1gEhclbeSyGHVxCQQyFZ6MR0cL7EboIHuHEa0FKPESHpYrtkBgCvrtABLGNmzD7WIPH3oBo/qiI/V+4PSDXdbEPhE4b4cjAB+A4FWcDBDsnzEQn4+TZVvcsnBOAQ83uSxaAhFbwDQdjzu0jeqjPXyaUBVAxH42cHX5bk1y7y+B89bQLcFJd5np4djH9QQQh+UBicajoyXgQYCz1Xg4GwAifny6byQLRDYs3i/+/m8geN6W0FRIEwMWEMG/9RD+ygESjUdHCnZ/JwB2CZAQcmwVSKXfhzG1BZ0hgNqZ3GMQiAGdJezvphr+DuJi/DB5kKgffKORBmIA3dCsaJAx0Dwq7TEIpGKFPPx7eKy5zGUuBWIY4vq/EE2dPsm9HTA1JQd7aDnD8LlMLmYfCPBoOKz1Q9eIJzV43ijZUW8nxz280SODCGICL4vRyA0Nao/AMobdMPpXkRCVTgGTJku4x/BHfMdd26RbmVEXDsML+AwGDBW5s2ZbeKDWz7llICV6tEfCmons1Y0SNT93SKP2COwIVv8vT0TneIpw4i4Mgp0ECMPb+ng/hGzHcrqUFQWQ/0LiiWmP2Lnbp2v9FW/UlXyP0mnTrug0X2LhzAnHG6j0MJQq933LpgsYltjVjHkzx046gj+zmwb2qzByQDixGPp9nzoudV4fuyyMCfHWljCgARn2YodTTxU741GoT2fUgD1ELXNRvNYPPKok7PcFEJ3RoAOHKobr0sVP6giCt9l3Aj/qCJD37rZC9loMmp+AEw+7msYkEFP6dwGEu2YMxOa6yyty576nERB31JQWuSfq7ZyJf/gJySJ2C29R94kvgzG9E9dLvIF8yKOOIPvPX1rIveMoOMCRNypCCyPXLRTj8TAGgtePeUXubHGxZzhqBqVvVmIgBrdMBUgg2Qsg8GcCRPD2Qr1iRh0B7GXXFLFfxAmnzVrt/qgSuuj5JRDJVwKxoycyBRCJWAARf+AUTRB1hIpXan75YItd8jJTkWjOyMkMps7QOo4/kmCRGH+TmcVdF1NxaqbjTJy7Ttt55jKXucxlLnOZy1zmMpe5zGUuc5nLXOYyl7nM5a8i/x/jYMIyHR9drQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" name="Weakons" align="bottom" width="400" height="200" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Two of the
|
||
faces correspond to spin up and spin down, that is, having a positive
|
||
or negative moment in the magnetic field. Each such face can be
|
||
represented as a direction of rotation along an axis parallel to the
|
||
direction of its motion, yielding two possibilities, left-handed spin
|
||
and right-handed spin, as depicted in the accompanying diagram. These
|
||
two faces are all that a particle with ½ spin has, and so as a first
|
||
approximation, it could be represented as rotational quantum cycles
|
||
of some kind which could be oriented in opposite directions relative
|
||
to the magnetic field. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">A spin 1
|
||
particle has a third face by which it can be oriented in a magnetic
|
||
field in which it has no magnetic moment at all. But in the case of
|
||
the weakon, we cannot hold that this <i>zero face </i>is lost by
|
||
moving through space with the inherent motion of space, because
|
||
weakons can be at rest. Instead, we have to admit that the weakon can
|
||
interact in a way in which its two faces, with opposite orientations
|
||
of spin, are somehow perfectly balanced. That suggests that we think
|
||
of the weakon, not as a rotation which can interact only from either
|
||
side of its axis, but as a rotating cylinder. If it is oriented so
|
||
that one end is interacting with the magnetic field, it is rotating
|
||
in one direction, and if it is turned around so that it interacts
|
||
from with its opposite side, it is rotating in the opposite direction
|
||
with a magnetic moment of the opposite sign. But if the cylinder
|
||
interacts with the magnetic field from its side, it has no net
|
||
rotation in the magnetic field, and its other faces are balanced
|
||
against one another. That is how its zero face will be represented
|
||
geometrically. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Electric
|
||
charge.</i> There are three kinds of weakons. Two have electric
|
||
charges, with signs opposite to one another, and the third weakon is
|
||
neutral. These are different kinds of weakons, not faces of each
|
||
weakon. But given out assumption about the nature of the
|
||
electromagnetic field, their charges can be explained as opposite
|
||
ways of relating to the universal, electromagnetic pulsation, which
|
||
is mediated by the inherent motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
electric charge is what is conserved by virtual photons, as the gauge
|
||
bosons of the electromagnetic field. Since we are assuming that the
|
||
forces of an electric charge are exerted in pulses that are perfectly
|
||
synchronized with similar pulsations by other particles with the same
|
||
charge wherever they are located in the universe, we can explain why
|
||
like charges repel. And since opposite charges are 180<sup>0</sup>
|
||
out of phase, particles with opposite charge should attract one
|
||
another. (We have also assumed that the pulsations have an additional
|
||
complexity that accounts for the magnetic forces.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">These
|
||
electromagnetic pulsations are independent of the rotational quantum
|
||
cycles we have been describing in order to explain the three faces of
|
||
spin orientation. Their intrinsic spin lines the particles up in a
|
||
certain way in the magnetic field, but the direction of the electric
|
||
and magnetic forces they feel depends on the gauge bosons that arise
|
||
from the electromagnetic field in a way that keeps their pulsations
|
||
synchronized as they move across space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[We shall
|
||
simply assume that weakons can have electric charges (and that they
|
||
can exist without them), as a basic property of weakons. But there
|
||
may be a simpler ontological explanation. Since weakons and photons
|
||
are both constituted by quantum cycles, it is conceivable that the
|
||
charged weakon is simply a photon at rest, or to take the weakon as
|
||
basic, that the photon is simply a weakon that is moving across
|
||
space. Though the weakon may have an electric charge when it is at
|
||
rest, its zero face (without any magnetic moment) may be engaged with
|
||
the inherent motion so that moves it across space at the velocity of
|
||
light. In that case, it loses is rest mass and its electric charge is
|
||
disengaged from the universal pulsation and becomes an electric force
|
||
that is exerted in time with the rotations of its intrinsic spin,
|
||
marking out the wavelengths of light. But when this particle is at
|
||
rest, its cycles of electric forces are exerted from a point in
|
||
space, and that geometrical configuration could be the radial field
|
||
of the electric charge of the weakon, whose pulsations are
|
||
synchronized with the pulsations of like particles everywhere. This
|
||
would simplify the ontological explanation of basic particles even
|
||
further, but I will leave it here as just a possibility.]</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Weak
|
||
charge.</i> The weakon is the gauge particle of the weak force, and
|
||
though it can act on other weakons, it needs fermions on which to
|
||
act, and that is the role of neutrinos. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>N<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_09" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="35" border="0">eutrinos.</b></i>
|
||
The other kind of basic particle we must postulate is the neutrino,
|
||
though as I suggested, it might be just an aspect of space in its
|
||
interaction with weakons. The neutrino is a fermion, an opposite kind
|
||
of particle from bosons, because it excludes other particles of the
|
||
same kind from occupying the same quantum state (including location
|
||
in space). Its spin of ½ means that it should have two possible
|
||
orientation by which it can interact in a magnetic field, one face
|
||
with a positive magnetic moment and another face with a negative
|
||
magnetic moment. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Fermions
|
||
can be represented geometrically as a rotational motion of some kind.
|
||
From one side, a fermion would be rotating in one direction, whereas
|
||
from the other side, it would be rotating in the opposite direction.
|
||
There are, however, various kinds of rotation that could constitute a
|
||
fermion, on this ontological theory, and let me emphasize that,
|
||
though the frequency of the rotation or circular motion may vary, the
|
||
magnetic moment is quantized. That is, the strength of the magnetic
|
||
moment is a fixed quantity that does not depend on how fast it is
|
||
rotating. That is just how basic particles coincide with space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Varieties
|
||
of neutrinos.</i> Neutrinos differ from one another in two ways, by
|
||
size and spin.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are
|
||
three sizes of neutrinos: the electron neutrino, which is the
|
||
biggest, the muon neutrino, which is smaller, and the tau neutrino,
|
||
which is the smallest of all three. It is not impossible that there
|
||
are even smaller neutrinos, and I will suggest how they would be
|
||
incorporated in this theory later. Furthermore, we shall assume that
|
||
the spin of the neutrino is more like a motion around a circular
|
||
pathway than it is the simple rotation of an object, and thus, the
|
||
size of each kind of neutrino is the size of its circular pathway. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The spin of
|
||
neutrinos are seen as problematic, because they violate the principle
|
||
that fermions have two possible orientations by which they can
|
||
interact in a magnetic field. Neutrinos have only a left-handed spin,
|
||
that is, they rotate counterclockwise along an axis parallel to the
|
||
direction of their motion. There are no neutrinos with a right-handed
|
||
spin. Or at least, the weak force interacts only with left-handed
|
||
neutrinos. (This is a violation of a symmetry recognized in
|
||
particles, called “parity,” in which it is required that it also
|
||
be possible for their structures and interactions to occur as if
|
||
reflected in a mirror.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
antineutrino, the antiparticle of the neutrino, however, does have a
|
||
right-handed spin; that is, it rotates clockwise in the direction of
|
||
its motion. Thus, for each neutrino, there is an antineutrino of the
|
||
same size, but with the opposite orientation of spin. What is
|
||
problematic about the spin of the neutrino is, therefore, that the
|
||
distinction between being the same particle with the opposite
|
||
orientation of spin and being the antiparticle breaks down in the
|
||
case of the neutrino. That may be problematic mathematically, but it
|
||
is not an ontological problem. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">On this
|
||
theory, neutrinos are special because they are elements that
|
||
constitute other particles and, thereby, explain their properties,
|
||
and it would not be surprising if the simplest particles do not have
|
||
all the properties of the particles they explain. Thus, we will
|
||
assume that neutrinos, as fermions, have two faces by which they can
|
||
interact in a magnetic field, but that the opposite orientation of
|
||
spin is also the antiparticle. Neutrinos have a left-handed spin
|
||
along an axis parallel to the direction of their motion, whereas
|
||
those with a right-handed spin are antineutrinos. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The reason
|
||
the difference in orientation of spin gets confused with the
|
||
difference between particle and antiparticle is that “antiparticles”
|
||
is defined in terms of opposite electric charge, or “charge
|
||
conjugation,” and we shall see how their opposite orientations in
|
||
spin give neutrinos and antineutrinos different relationships to
|
||
electric charges. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Relationship
|
||
to space.</i> Though I am counting neutrinos as basic particles, they
|
||
will be explained ontologically in a way that may be come down to
|
||
reducing them to an aspect of space. That is possible, because space
|
||
is a substance, and its circular motion could be just an additional
|
||
aspect of the inherent motion. Let us assume, accordingly, that there
|
||
is at every point in space at least three kinds of motion that travel
|
||
around in circles. Each goes both ways, and they are found in every
|
||
plane of three dimensional space. There is a largest size for such
|
||
circular pathways, which determines the longest period for a complete
|
||
circuit, and circular pathways with shorter radii have shorter
|
||
periods, with more complete circuits per second. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The idea is
|
||
that there exists both a neutrino and antineutrino of all three kinds
|
||
at every point in space. These circular motions are another aspect of
|
||
space, like the inherent motion and presumably connected with the
|
||
inherent motion in some way. Although these pairs of circular
|
||
pathways do not have any linear motion through space (except for the
|
||
motion of the inherent motion itself in a gravitational field), they
|
||
do not have rest mass in space, because they are just parts of space
|
||
itself. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We assume
|
||
that there is an angular momentum associated with each circular
|
||
motion, which would give it a moment of force in a magnetic field
|
||
(explaining its intrinsic spin). That is to say that these circular
|
||
pathways are oriented relative to the magnetic field. But since
|
||
neutrino and antineutrino exist together, their angular momentums
|
||
cancel out. They are neutralized, because they are circular motions
|
||
in opposite directions. Thus, these circular pathways in space do not
|
||
usually have any effect on what happens. Photons pass right through
|
||
them, as do particles with rest mass, as if there was only space at
|
||
that location.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is to
|
||
explain the neutrino ontologically in an opposite way from weakons.
|
||
Unlike weakons, which have a rest mass that can be explained
|
||
ontologically by the quantum cycles per second, neutrinos have no
|
||
rest mass. At least, nothing in the theory requires them to have a
|
||
rest, and experiments show that it cannot have more mass than about
|
||
12 eV/c<sup>2</sup>. Thus, they may not even be constituted by
|
||
quantum cycles, like forms of quantum matter. They could be simply
|
||
aspects of space, because as we assumed, the magnetic field in which
|
||
they are oriented is just an aspect of space (a form of force-field
|
||
matter). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Interaction
|
||
with weakons.</i> Though neutrinos do not have an electric charge,
|
||
they do have a weak charge. That is, they interact with weakons. But
|
||
weakons exist only as pairs with opposite orientations of spin, and
|
||
thus, we shall assume that the weakon can act on neutrinos by
|
||
extracting one of these circular pathways from space and using it to
|
||
travel around in circles. The weakon and the circular pathways are
|
||
both oriented in the magnetic field, and when the weakon latches onto
|
||
a such pathway with a circular motion in one direction, and it
|
||
releases the pathway with opposite circular motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since the
|
||
released neutrino has no rest mass, it moves away from its former
|
||
partner at the velocity of light. That is what physics assumes,
|
||
though we shall explain its motion as due to the inherent motion in
|
||
space. It engages with the inherent motion and thereby acquires the
|
||
velocity of light. The released neutrino is just a bit of angular
|
||
momentum that propagates through space, and it will not interact with
|
||
anything, unless it runs into a weakon.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Weakons act
|
||
on neutrino-antineutrino pairs where they are located, but how they
|
||
act on such a pair depends on the charge of the weakon. A negatively
|
||
charged weakon extracts a circular pathway with a left-handed
|
||
circular motion relative to the direction of the magnetic field, and
|
||
thus, it releases an antineutrino, that is, a neutrino with a
|
||
right-handed circular motion. Correspondingly, a positively charged
|
||
weakon extracts a circular pathway with a right-handed circular
|
||
motion, and since that is an antineutrino, what it releases is a
|
||
neutrino, which runs off with the inherent motion. The 180<sup>0</sup>
|
||
difference in the phases of pulsations of the positive and negative
|
||
charges of weakons corresponds, therefore, to the right-handed and
|
||
left-handed spins of neutrinos. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAE8AAAAQCAMAAABgMtKWAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUGTMidVSjpGPjA4MSYqJR18AABzAABmAABaAAAcGBNPAABJAAA/AAAzAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACnRTWeAAABGUlEQVR4nK2TYXPDIAiGQRHxFrFJm3X9/390YJJ1d232Yed7ORWUB9ALzPMyUnD5GCq4PIYK5gcM1AMW5yFLgsjn5zj6WH67Ap7yUJkKkZzzhHzUV9dbHvfKqFVFmFQjSNXIZkLUli2d3g5e0Yagk3lvrZhVu8V2UEvn2RXuqaj4AnkSsO49WGFK1DzdUV+oJBksrborTsC7lQXhh7fXJ36mce7zxlORbh08MgdtWzZbhH3dwjzp6/05j8rGq4ktqHhMJd152FJKoImrVUTYbGvjJbZGnu+brcNgCQNEoT4DSqpWureecgr9le1VJQdQzmgxbBZ1r62yhCfvnbK2eLKlJ/4/ef+S88b+b8t6/xqm+wrzdf0cp+s3GFAxNQGuhbEAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="TtsOtkCLCos_10" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="35" border="0">harged
|
||
leptons. </b></i>This interaction between charged weakons and
|
||
neutrinos affords an ontological explanation of charged leptons. The
|
||
member of the neutrino pair that is retained by the weakon is used as
|
||
a pathway to guide its own motion, transforming the weakon into a
|
||
charged lepton, such as a tau particle, a muon, or an electron. Let
|
||
us see how the properties of a charged lepton can be explained by
|
||
this combination.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Electric
|
||
charge. </i>The weakon that interacts with the neutrino-antineutrino
|
||
pair has an electric charge, and since electric charge is conserved,
|
||
the charge is inherited by the lepton created by this weakon-neutrino
|
||
interaction. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Negatively
|
||
charged weakons extract neutrinos from space to use as their new
|
||
pathway, and thus, negatively charged leptons contain a neutrino and
|
||
they release an antineutrino. Positively charged weakons, on the
|
||
other hand, extract an antineutrino for themselves and release the
|
||
neutrino. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[It would
|
||
be possible to formulate a theory like this by holding that the
|
||
weakon simply acquires a new kind angular momentum from space and
|
||
explaining the antineutrino as simply a form of angular momentum that
|
||
remains in space as its way of conserving momentum. That might be a
|
||
simpler theory, which emphasizes that neutrinos are just aspects of
|
||
space, but it would leave out how space supplies the angular momentum
|
||
that the lepton acquires as the weakon changes to a fermion. Thus, I
|
||
will continue to describe the near basic particles as being
|
||
constituted in part by neutrinos, if only to keep track of what space
|
||
is contributing to their structures.]</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The neutral
|
||
weakon, <i>Z</i><sup><i>0</i></sup>, does not interact with
|
||
neutrino-antineutrino pairs at all. It mediates purely elastic
|
||
collisions among particles with a weak charge. The electromagnetic
|
||
pulsation of the electric charge is presumably what engages with
|
||
space to extract neutrinos from them (suggesting that the circular
|
||
motion of the neutrino and antineutrino is synchronized with the
|
||
universal pulsation of negative and positive charges, respectively).
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Rest
|
||
mass.</i> Let us assume that the weakon interacts with the neutrino
|
||
from its neutral face, that is, from the side of the cylindrical
|
||
boson. Such a geometrical relationship is possible, since both
|
||
particles are assumed to be lined up with the magnetic field. We have
|
||
assumed that the cylinder is rotating, presumably with each rotation
|
||
being a quantum cycle, so that the frequency of its quantum cycles
|
||
explains its rest mass. It has a large rest mass, but if we assume
|
||
that, when it interacts with a neutrino, its own rotation becomes a
|
||
circular motion along the neutrino pathway, we can explain why the
|
||
charged lepton has less rest mass than the weakon.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since each
|
||
circuit around such a circular pathway would take longer than one of
|
||
the simple rotations that constitute the rest mass of the weakon,
|
||
there are fewer quantum cycles per second in the new lepton, giving
|
||
the composite particle a lower rest mass. But matter is conserved.
|
||
The quantum cycles that previously constituted the rest mass of the
|
||
weakon do not drop out of existence, but rather are converted into
|
||
quantum kinetic cycles, which give the new particle with a smaller
|
||
rest mass a velocity relative to the inherent motion. (Momentum is
|
||
conserved, because the antineutrino that takes off some direction in
|
||
space with the inherent motion has an equal and opposite momentum.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are,
|
||
however, at least three different sizes of circular pathways in
|
||
space, and the smaller the circular pathway, the shorter the period
|
||
and the greater the rest mass. Since a weakon has an enormous mass,
|
||
it would usually become a tau particle or a muon before it became an
|
||
electron. When a negatively charged weakon extracts a tau neutrino
|
||
from space, for example, it releases a tau antineutrino. But since
|
||
the muon and electron have longer pathways, requiring fewer quantum
|
||
cycles per second, the tau particle can decay further. What remains
|
||
of the negative weakon in the tau particle will release its tau
|
||
neutrino, extract, say, a muon neutrino from space and release a muon
|
||
antineutrino (with surplus matter converted to kinetic energy).
|
||
Likewise, the muon would decay into an electron by releasing its muon
|
||
neutrino, extracting an electron neutrino from space, and releasing
|
||
the electron antineutrino to run off with the inherent motion. The
|
||
electron is the last step, because it is the largest circular pathway
|
||
possible in space, requiring the fewest quantum cycles per second.
|
||
These are the decay patterns of weakons and charged leptons that have
|
||
been found by physics, though they are explained here ontologically,
|
||
by the size of the circular pathways provided by the neutrinos. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Spin.
|
||
</i>Intrinsic spin angular momentum is also conserved in the creation
|
||
of a charged lepton, though in a curious way that might explain a
|
||
couple of otherwise puzzling fact about leptons. The neutrino has no
|
||
rest mass of its own, but when it is used as a pathway by a weakon,
|
||
the composite particle acquires rest mass, which enables the lepton
|
||
to be at rest in space. Thus, though free neutrinos lose one of their
|
||
faces to the inherent motion, the captured neutrino can give the
|
||
lepton it helps constitute a spin of 1/2 , with two faces from which
|
||
it can interact in a magnetic field. With a weakon on its circular
|
||
pathway, it has a rest mass and can turn around. Thus, it can be
|
||
oriented in either way in a magnetic field. In one case, it will have
|
||
a left-handed spin along an axis parallel to its motion in the
|
||
magnetic field, and in the other case it will have a right-handed
|
||
spin. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the spin
|
||
of the charged lepton comes from the neutrino, however, what happens
|
||
to the other two faces of spin of the weakon? We have explained what
|
||
happened to its neutral face. That is the face that the weakon uses
|
||
to travel around the circular pathway (much as the photon uses its
|
||
neutral face to travel along with the inherent motion). But the
|
||
weakon had two other faces, one that give it a positive moment in a
|
||
magnetic field and another that would give it a negative moment.
|
||
These are represented by the two ends of the cylindrical structure of
|
||
the spin one boson. The question is what happens to them.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Geometrically,
|
||
the simplest explanation is that each of the weakon’s two non-zero
|
||
faces coincides with one face of the neutrino in constituting the
|
||
charged lepton. The circular pathway gives the charged lepton two
|
||
opposite ways of being oriented in a magnetic field, because one of
|
||
the non-zero faces of the weakon coincides with one face of the
|
||
neutrino, and the other non-zero face coincides with the other one
|
||
face of the neutrino. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
we have assumed that following the neutrino pathway requires the
|
||
weakon to have fewer quantum cycles pre second, lowering its rest
|
||
mass. It is as if the rotation of the cylindrical weakon were slowed
|
||
down so that the weakon could follow the circular pathway provided by
|
||
the neutrino. But the decrease in quantum cycles per second does not
|
||
mean that its spin angular momentum is changed, because we are
|
||
assuming that spin angular momentum is quantized. That is, the
|
||
magnetic moment due to intrinsic spin is an all or nothing property:
|
||
either the particle has it or not. Thus, the particle would have that
|
||
same quantum property regardless of the frequency of the quantum rest
|
||
mass cycles constituting it. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
may seem redundant or even gratuitous to suppose that the two
|
||
non-zero faces of the weakon coincide with the two faces of the
|
||
lepton. But it would explain one or two otherwise puzzling facts
|
||
about leptons. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">First, we
|
||
know from Dirac’s equations that charged leptons, such as the
|
||
electron, cannot be turned over completely by rotating them 360<sup>0</sup>,
|
||
as one would expect, but requires two full turns. Since a 180<sup>0</sup>
|
||
rotation would make the face with the opposite orientation of spin in
|
||
front, one would expect that two 180<sup>0</sup> rotations would turn
|
||
it back to its original state. Though a 180<sup>0</sup> does give it
|
||
the opposite orientation of spin, the equations imply that the
|
||
electron has returned completely to its original size until it has
|
||
been turned over twice, that is, 720<sup>0</sup>. That otherwise
|
||
curious feature of the charged lepton would be explained
|
||
ontologically on this theory, because turning it over completely
|
||
would involve turning over not only the two opposite faces that the
|
||
charged lepton derives from the neutrino’s circular pathway, but
|
||
also the two opposite, non-zero faces that it derives from the weakon
|
||
that is using that circular pathway. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Second,
|
||
this ontological explanation of the charged lepton might explain
|
||
another puzzling property. The electron has a spin of ½, as if its
|
||
spin were only one-half of a quantum of action, and yet the magnetic
|
||
moment that it exhibits in a magnetic field is more like what it
|
||
would have, if it were a complete quantum of action, that is, about
|
||
twice the expected strength. That could be explained, perhaps, by the
|
||
way in which the spin of the charged lepton derives from the non-zero
|
||
faces of the weakon. With a spin of 1, the weakon has a stronger
|
||
moment in a magnetic field, when it has one at all, and that could be
|
||
the source of the magnetic force of the charged lepton. This would be
|
||
to interpret the “½” as just a device for cataloguing basic
|
||
objects by the number of faces they can show for interaction in a
|
||
magnetic field. (That is, according to quantum mechanics, the
|
||
strength of the magnetic moment is the square root of the product of
|
||
the spin and the spin-plus-one, or (s(s + 1))<sup>1/2</sup>,
|
||
and that means that the non-zero faces of the weakon have a magnetic
|
||
moment equal to the square root of two times Planck’s constant,
|
||
whereas the spin ½ particles has a magnetic moment equal to the
|
||
square root of three divided by two times Planck’s constant.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Decay
|
||
patterns.</i> As we have seen, this ontological explanation explains
|
||
the decay patterns of the negatively charged weakon into the tau
|
||
particle, muons and electron. It remains only to point out that it
|
||
also explains the decay patterns of the positively charged weakon,
|
||
and why decay stops there.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
positively charged weakon, W<sup>+</sup>, interacts in a magnetic
|
||
field with the neutrino-antineutrino pairs in space, but it latches
|
||
onto the circular pathway with a right-handed spin in the magnetic
|
||
field, or the antineutrino, and it releases the neutrino, with a
|
||
left-handed spin. Otherwise, the decay pattern is the same as
|
||
described above, because the tau neutrino is the smallest, followed
|
||
by the muon neutrino and, finally, the electron neutrino. The rest
|
||
masses of the resulting positively charged leptons is inversely
|
||
related to the sizes of their neutrino pathways. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
electron (or positron) is a stable particle, because it carries an
|
||
electric charge, which cannot come apart, and there are no larger
|
||
pathways in space than those provided by the electron neutrino (or
|
||
antineutrino). We must take the conservation of electric charge to be
|
||
a fact about how matter coincides with space, an aspect of the
|
||
electromagnetic field whose gauge bosons exert forces that keep its
|
||
pulsations in phase with other charged particles throughout the
|
||
universe, on this interpretation of gauge field theories. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Q<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAE8AAAAOCAMAAABZ7rF9AAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpGPjA4MSYqJR18AAB2AABmAAAcGBMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAjl63EAAAAq0lEQVR4nK2RjQrDIAyEz0ajRZP++P7vuriVjtHB2s5DIlH8OC+Yl67CNM09hal2FeaKjqpYGs/FNBwvmW7ynHLQ4+Pkb/KYgSHDp4YglRGQLNaQOFdErvAswpcR2XigtFrn7JitUvmSxA/ehz8uXhvdeJqt8qjnie/8hEAS1COmsG48zxkUfTk/l32+EmwLMZiV2Ozagh9sxI6vjGXjWWjPv/2tnddJjddVDyToG4ogdQEWAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCLCos_11" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="31" border="0">uarks.</b></i>
|
||
Quarks cannot be explained in the same way as charged leptons,
|
||
because weakons do not decay into quarks. Indeed, quarks are never
|
||
found in isolation from one another. Hence, baryons, at least, must
|
||
have existed from the beginning of the universe (or forever). But
|
||
quarks can still be given a genuine ontological explanation in terms
|
||
of the simpler particles of which they are composed, for their
|
||
constitution could explain their properties and decay patterns.
|
||
Though that would mean that quarks are not basic <i>particles</i>,
|
||
the special <i>configuration </i>of more basic particles constituting
|
||
them must have existed from the beginning, and that would be an
|
||
ontological explanation of them. That is what is proposed here. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">By
|
||
contrast, attempts by physicists to explain quarks by a more basic
|
||
structure focus on formulating a mathematical law from which both the
|
||
electroweak force and the strong (i.e., color) force can be derived.
|
||
This is the attempt to discover what is called the “grand unified
|
||
theory,” or GUT, and though it is successful in some ways, it
|
||
implies that there is a magnetic monopole and that the proton can
|
||
decay. Neither phenomenon has been observed, and on this ontological
|
||
theory, neither is possible. (Instead, the magnetic field is an
|
||
aspect of space connected with the inherent motion by which particles
|
||
are lined up according to their spin orientation to interact with one
|
||
another, the protons may have a geometrical structure in space that
|
||
literally cannot be undone.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Quantum
|
||
matter.</i> The main idea of this theory of quantum matter is that
|
||
bits of matter are constituted by cycles of quantum events in such a
|
||
way that the quantity of matter in any object is equal to the total
|
||
number of its quantum cycles per second. Such a nature is plain
|
||
enough in the photon, whose motion across space with the inherent
|
||
motion marks out its wavelength. And it has revealing implications in
|
||
the case of the quantum kinetic cycles, which constitute the kinetic
|
||
energy of particles with rest mass. But this nature is not so clear
|
||
in the case of the particles with rest mass themselves, because their
|
||
quantum cycles must somehow be contained by space in a way that does
|
||
not involve motion relative to the inherent motion in space.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Weakons are
|
||
a most elementary from of quantum matter, and so we have assumed that
|
||
the weakon manages this trick by simply rotating like a cylinder,
|
||
though, of course, with a fixed and unchanging number of quantum
|
||
cycles per second (about 10<sup>24</sup> cycles per second, given its
|
||
rest mass of 80,000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup> and a photon with an energy on
|
||
the order of a few electron volts having a frequency of about 10<sup>15</sup>).
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We have
|
||
seen how charged leptons could be constituted by quantum cycles in
|
||
which the weakon’s unit of action completes a circuit provided by a
|
||
neutrino’s circular pathway. Each circuit takes so much longer than
|
||
a simple rotation around it own axis that it reduces the total number
|
||
of quantum cycles required each second to constitute the continued
|
||
existence of the particle. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Quarks can
|
||
also be explained as being constituted by a pathway for quantum
|
||
cycles of the kind that derive from weakons. But the pathway must be
|
||
more complex than leptons. The simplest way to explain why quarks
|
||
cannot exist apart from one another is to hold that the pathway
|
||
followed by their constituent quantum cycles depends on a combination
|
||
of quarks. This is plausible, because physics has discovered that
|
||
three quarks are required to make up a baryon, the only stable
|
||
hadron, and each meson, the particle that mediates the strong force
|
||
between them, is made up of a quark and an antiquark. As it happens,
|
||
there is a way to explain these particles, their properties and decay
|
||
patterns along the lines of the foregoing ontological explanation of
|
||
charged leptons.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Twisted
|
||
circular pathways.</i> The key to the ontological explanation of
|
||
quarks is, once again, the interaction between weakons and neutrinos.
|
||
This is to interpret the weak force, not merely as the cause of decay
|
||
patterns, but as the force that is responsible for their
|
||
constitution. The weak force gives particles a nature by binding
|
||
weakons to neutrinos. I have been describing this bond as a weakon
|
||
moving along a pathway provided by a neutrino, and that is still the
|
||
best way to represent it geometrically in the case of quarks. But
|
||
even a single quark involves a more complex interaction between
|
||
weakons and neutrinos than is found in charged leptons.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We must
|
||
assume that the weak force can interact with two neutrinos. Such
|
||
interactions are possible only when the neutrinos are of different
|
||
sizes and one is a neutrino, while the other is an antineutrino.
|
||
Moreover, it is an ordered interaction in which the two neutrinos
|
||
play different roles. One neutrino is dominant, and the other
|
||
neutrino is partially hidden. Such an interaction is what constitutes
|
||
a single quark. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
interaction in a quark can be pictured in terms of a pathway provided
|
||
for the weakon by the two neutrinos. What happens as the weakon moves
|
||
along that pathway is that the weakon starts off moving around a
|
||
circle in one plane, just as in a charged lepton, but the effect of
|
||
the other neutrino is that the weakon winds up moving circularly in
|
||
an orthogonal plane. That is, during each quantum event, the weakon
|
||
follows a circular motion that is also twisted so that the plane of
|
||
circular motion rotates 90<sup>0</sup>. That is not by itself a
|
||
closed pathway for the weakon, but there are two different ways that
|
||
the pathway can be closed — by the combination of quarks in mesons
|
||
and baryons.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">First, the
|
||
weakon coming out of the twisted circular pathway one quark can enter
|
||
the twisted pathway of an antiquark, and since the second quark
|
||
rotates the plane of circular motion back to the initial plane of the
|
||
first quark, the weakon can go around again and again. The second
|
||
quark is able to complete the closed pathway because it is the mirror
|
||
image of the first quark. That is the basic pattern of the meson. But
|
||
notice that two weakons are required to constitute a meson. The
|
||
complete pathway involves both a quark and an antiquark, and a
|
||
complete quantum event is required for the weakon to traverse the
|
||
pathway of each twisted circle. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Second, it
|
||
is also possible to put three of these twisting circles together as a
|
||
closed pathway. In the first quark, the weakon follows a circular
|
||
pathway which twists into a circular pathway in an orthogonal plane,
|
||
and the second quark picks up the circular motion in that plane and
|
||
twists it into a circular motion to the remaining plane which is
|
||
orthogonal to both in three dimensional space. That is still not a
|
||
closed pathway, but with a third quark that picks up the circular
|
||
motion in that third plane and rotates it back to initial plane of
|
||
circular motion in the first quark, the weakon can repeat the same
|
||
trip over and over again. Since each twisting circle comes out in a
|
||
direction perpendicular to its entrance, three of them together
|
||
brings the weakon back to its starting point. This is the plan
|
||
followed in baryons, composed of three quarks each. But three weakons
|
||
are required to constitute such a particle, because one must be
|
||
traversing each twisted circular pathways during each cycle. That is,
|
||
three parallel series of quantum cycles constitute each baryon.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Weak
|
||
interaction in each quark.</i> This weak interaction in a quark
|
||
between weakons and two neutrinos must, of course, be assumed as part
|
||
of the nature of the weak force. It is a single quantum event, but it
|
||
can be pictured in much the same way we did in the case of leptons.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Instead of
|
||
interacting with the neutrinos by its zero face, the weakon could
|
||
interact with both neutrinos at once, if it interacted by way of its
|
||
two non-zero faces, each with an opposite orientation of spin in a
|
||
magnetic field. That is, one non-zero face would try to follow the
|
||
circular pathway of the neutrino, while the other non-zero face would
|
||
try to follow the circular pathway provided by the antineutrino, and
|
||
the combination of these two influences would result in a twisted
|
||
circular pathway that rotates from one plane in three dimensional
|
||
space to another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
pattern would explain why the quark is constituted by a neutrino and
|
||
an antineutrino, rather than two neutrinos (of different sizes).
|
||
Since the non-zero faces of the weakon have opposite orientations of
|
||
spin, the neutrinos with which they interact also have opposite
|
||
orientations of spin. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">A weakon
|
||
interacting with a neutrino and antineutrino in this way would be
|
||
contorted in a way that leaves its zero-face free, and that could
|
||
become the face by which each quark exerts color forces on other
|
||
quarks and passes its weakon on to the next quark. The eight
|
||
different gluons might then be explained geometrically as the forces
|
||
needed to line up three quarks properly (or to line a quark and
|
||
antiquark) so that the weakon can complete a full circuit through
|
||
them. Each quark must pick up a circular motion in one plane, twist
|
||
it to another plane, and pass the circular motion onto another quark,
|
||
and the gluons could be explained geometrically by their various
|
||
roles in giving the three quarks the constant spatial relationship
|
||
required for the weakons to make a complete their trips through the
|
||
quarks. In other words, the color force would be another aspect of
|
||
the weak force that is manifested when weakons interact with these
|
||
neutrino-antineutrino combinations.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Notice that
|
||
this account of the interaction between neutrinos and weakons
|
||
parallels the explanation of leptons, for in that case, the
|
||
interaction of the zero-face of the weakon with a neutrino exposed
|
||
the two non-zero faces of the weakon, explaining the two non-zero
|
||
faces of the charged lepton entailed by its ½ spin as a fermion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[There may
|
||
be other ways of picturing this interaction geometrically, though
|
||
their explanations do not seem to be as complete. If the weakon uses
|
||
its zero face, perhaps it begins in each quark by following the
|
||
pathway of one neutrino, but in the presence of an antineutrino of a
|
||
different size, it simply shifts to the second pathway, which twists
|
||
its circular pathway. However, the quark seems to be a point-like
|
||
object, and this theory does not explain its unity, since a
|
||
sequential pathway would seem to require two quantum events.
|
||
Furthermore, it does not explain why the interaction does not occur
|
||
with two neutrinos of different sizes. Why is an antineutrino
|
||
involved. (Notice that on the previous model, there is are reason for
|
||
having both a neutrino and an antineutrino. Nor does it have any
|
||
problem explaining why the neutrino and antineutrino are not of the
|
||
same size, since a neutrino and antineutrino of the same size would
|
||
annihilate one another.] </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Kinds
|
||
of quarks.</i> If quarks are constituted by neutrinos and weakons in
|
||
some such way, it is possible to explain all the kinds of quarks by
|
||
the kinds of neutrinos of which they are composed. There are just
|
||
enough differences between the composite particles to explain all the
|
||
properties that distinguish one kind of quark from another, including
|
||
their antiquarks. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Spin.</i>
|
||
As fermions, all the quarks have a spin of ½. We assume that the
|
||
interaction between weakons and a neutrino and antineutrino of
|
||
different sizes in each quark is a single quantum event. Together
|
||
these more basic particles must make up a single fermion. As long as
|
||
each weak interaction is a single quantum event, it is not impossible
|
||
for a particle constituted this way to have a spin of ½, because the
|
||
spins of the constituent neutrinos are not oriented in the same
|
||
plane, where their spins would cancel one another out. Instead, the
|
||
neutrinos are bound to one another in a way that we are assuming is
|
||
unequal. One of the neutrinos making up the quark is dominant, as if
|
||
the other neutrino were somehow hidden, and thus, the dominant
|
||
neutrino’s orientation of spin can be assumed to be what gives the
|
||
quark as a whole the two, opposite faces that fermions, with a spin
|
||
of ½, must have. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is one set of combinations of neutrinos with weakons that will
|
||
explain all the kinds of quarks and their properties. Those
|
||
combinations are indicated in the accompanying diagram (Constitution
|
||
of Quarks). In each case, the first neutrino (or antineutrino) in
|
||
each stack is the dominant one, tending to mask the other neutrino
|
||
(or antineutrino). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Sign of
|
||
electric charge.</i> The d, s and b quarks all have an electric
|
||
charge of –1/3, whereas the u, c and t quarks all have a charge of
|
||
+2/3. And antiparticles always have the opposite electric charge. The
|
||
sign of the charge of the quark depends on the dominant neutrino in
|
||
the same way that the sign of the charged lepton is determined. We
|
||
assumed that the spin of the neutrino is synchronized with the
|
||
universal pulsation of negatively charged particles and that the spin
|
||
of the antineutrino is synchronized with the positive pulsation. That
|
||
is how we explained why neutrinos acquire a negative charge, and
|
||
antineutrinos acquire a positive charge. Accordingly, the charge of
|
||
the quark is negative, when its dominant member is a neutrino, and
|
||
the quark’s charge is positive, when the dominant member is an
|
||
antineutrino (whatever ultimately explains the “dominance” of one
|
||
neutrino over another in a quark). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Size of
|
||
electric charge.</i> The electric charge of the quark is either 1/3
|
||
or 2/3, and that can be explained as a result of the combination of
|
||
the two neutrinos. We are assuming that the charge is a pulse of
|
||
electric force that is synchronized with the universal pulsation of
|
||
such charges, and thus, since negative and positive charges are 180<sup>0
|
||
</sup>out of phase with one another, the fractional charges can be
|
||
explained by an appropriate rotation or phase shift in the cycle of
|
||
such pulsations. It is presumably because a neutrino and antineutrino
|
||
have opposite phases relative to that universal pulsation that the
|
||
electric charge of the quark is in between –1 and +1, and so the
|
||
relative sizes of the dominant and hidden neutrino could determine
|
||
the size of the quark’s charge. That is, if the dominant neutrino
|
||
is bigger (requiring fewer quantum cycles per second if it were on
|
||
its own), then it is a charge of 1/3. But if the dominant neutrino is
|
||
smaller (requiring more quantum cycles per second on its own), the
|
||
charge is 2/3. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
conservation of electric charge is due to the electromagnetic field,
|
||
it is possible for the weakon traversing one of these twisted
|
||
pathways to be separated from the electric charge it has when its
|
||
exists independently, and it could even be what actually keeps the
|
||
weak force from acting in ways that would not conserve charge (though
|
||
there is probably a deeper explanation).</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img 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" name="QuarkConstitution" align="bottom" width="468" height="347" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Rest
|
||
mass.</i> The rest masses of quarks are not well defined, because the
|
||
quantities are not entailed by theory and the quarks cannot be
|
||
measured apart from the baryons or weakons. It appears, however, that
|
||
a good part of the rest mass of the baryon and meson comes from the
|
||
gluons by which weakons pass from one quark to another, and since
|
||
that matter presumably exist as potential and kinetic energy, the
|
||
quarks are probably somehow in motion as the weakons are passing
|
||
through them. Experiments do, however, suggest a range of rest masses
|
||
for the quarks themselves, and the differences among them can be
|
||
explained according to the theory of quantum matter.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The second
|
||
family of quarks is more massive than the first, and the third family
|
||
is more massive than the second. Moreover, in the second and third
|
||
families, the quarks with 2/3 charge are considerably more massive
|
||
than the quarks with 1/3 charge. These differences can be explained
|
||
on the assumption that the rest mass depends on the total number of
|
||
quantum cycles per second, because neutrinos with smaller circular
|
||
pathways require more quantum cycles per second. Thus, the greater
|
||
mass of later families can be explained by their use of smaller
|
||
neutrinos: the tau neutrino replaces the muon neutrino in the second
|
||
family and the muon neutrino replaces the electron neutrino in the
|
||
third family. And the greater mass of the quark with 2/3 charge in
|
||
the second and third families can be explained by the smaller size of
|
||
the dominant neutrino. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Decay
|
||
patterns of hadrons.</i> The decay patterns of both baryons and meson
|
||
can be explained by this theory of quarks. In a weak decay, one kind
|
||
of quark turns into another kind, and this can happen in two ways.
|
||
Either the dominant and hidden neutrinos switch roles, or they switch
|
||
roles and one of the neutrinos is replaced by a larger neutrino
|
||
(requiring fewer quantum cycles). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">One pattern
|
||
is the decay that occurs within each family of quarks. When a neutron
|
||
decays into a proton, for example, the triplet of <i>ddu </i>quarks
|
||
becomes a triplet of <i>duu </i>quarks, giving off an electron and an
|
||
electron antineutrino (which is thought to be mediated by the decay
|
||
of the negative virtual weakon released in the process). On this
|
||
theory of quarks, what happens is that a <i>d </i>quark becomes a <i>u
|
||
</i>quark, and that means that their neutrinos change positions. The
|
||
muon antineutrino, which was the hidden member in the d quark,
|
||
becomes the dominant member of the u quark, and the electron neutrino
|
||
of the d quark becomes the masked member of the u quark. T</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The same
|
||
pattern occurs in the decay of mesons, which mediate the strong force
|
||
among hadrons. For example, the negative pion is made up of a <i>d
|
||
</i>quark and a <i>u </i>antiquark, and it typically decays into a
|
||
negative muon and a muon antineutrino (by way of a negative virtual
|
||
weakon). One of the ways this could happen is that the u antiquark
|
||
becomes a d antiquark. That means that the electron antineutrino and
|
||
the muon neutrino switch roles, and since that leaves the electron
|
||
neutrino facing the electron antineutrino and the muon neutrino
|
||
facing the muon antineutrino, they annihilate one another, and the
|
||
weakon extracts a muon neutrino from space to become a lepton leaving
|
||
a muon antineutrino as debris.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The weakon
|
||
is just a virtual particle in these interactions. It is the gauge
|
||
boson that arises from the weak field, that is, from space, according
|
||
to the gauge field theory, to preserve the weak charges of the
|
||
particles. For that role, the weakon does not need to have the energy
|
||
of an independently existing weakon (any more than the virtual photon
|
||
that mediates the electric and magnetic forces among electrically
|
||
charged particles needs to have the energy of an independently
|
||
existing photon). On this explanation, however, it is the weak
|
||
charges of the neutrinos that are be preserved, and their weak
|
||
charges are preserved by forces that line the neutrinos up as parts
|
||
of the quark. Thus, the weak force can change the dominance roles of
|
||
neutrinos in a quark (as long as electric charge is conserved). And
|
||
any matter left over can act like a charged weakon on space to
|
||
extract a neutrino and become a charged lepton (leaving the
|
||
antineutrino as debris). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The other
|
||
pattern is the decay that occurs between families of quarks. The
|
||
sigma minus is a baryon composed of the quark triplet, <i>dds</i>,
|
||
and it typically decays into a neutron, with <i>ddu, </i>and a
|
||
negative pion, which carries away the negative charge (and decays as
|
||
described above). The decay of sigma minus requires an s quark to
|
||
become a u quark. That involves not only a reversal of the roles of
|
||
the two neutrinos in the s quark, so that the electron neutrino
|
||
shifts from the dominant position in the s quark to the hidden
|
||
position in the u quark, but also a replacement of the tau
|
||
antineutrino in the s quark by a muon antineutrino as it takes up the
|
||
dominant position in the u quark. Thus, this theory would imply that
|
||
the decay of the sigma minus leaves two neutrinos in addition to the
|
||
negative pion which is recognized, namely, the tau antineutrino that
|
||
is released from the decay of the <i>s </i>quark and the muon
|
||
neutrino that was also extracted from space in order to supply a muon
|
||
antineutrino for the dominant position. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This other
|
||
pattern also occurs in mesons. The positive kaon, for example, is a
|
||
meson composed of a u quark and as s antiquark, and it typically
|
||
decays into a positive muon and muon neutrino. Assuming that the
|
||
neutrinos and antineutrinos must be lined up to annihilate one
|
||
another, this requires the s antiquark to decay into a u antiquark,
|
||
for then it can annihilate the u quark. That requires that the
|
||
neutrinos in the s antiquark to switch roles and at the same time
|
||
replace the tau neutrino with a muon neutrino (that is, the electron
|
||
antineutrino gives up its dominant position in the s antiquark and
|
||
takes up the hidden position in the u antiquark, and the tau neutrino
|
||
from the hidden role in the s antiquark is replaced by the muon
|
||
neutrino in taking up the dominant position in the u quark), Again
|
||
there are two neutrinos as extra debris, because the s quark must not
|
||
only release its tau antineutrino, but also extract a muon
|
||
antineutrino in its place, releasing a muon neutrino. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">All of the
|
||
decays of quarks between families of quarks involve such additional
|
||
neutrino debris, which are not recognized by high energy physics. But
|
||
that is not an empirical reason for doubting that this theory is
|
||
true, because neutrinos interact so weakly that they are almost
|
||
impossible to detect. They cannot be monitored in particle
|
||
accelerators. And this theory about the nature of quarks is not held
|
||
by physicists. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Other
|
||
families of leptons and quarks.</i> It is possible, given this
|
||
ontological explanation, that there are additional families of
|
||
charged leptons and quarks. It would require a smaller neutrino and
|
||
antineutrino. Call it “x”.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Charged
|
||
leptons could be constituted by them and charged weakons in the same
|
||
way as the electron, muon and tau particle (and their antiparticle).
|
||
Their smaller size would require more quantum cycles per second, and
|
||
that may be the reason they have not been observed, if they exist at
|
||
all. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Given the
|
||
role of neutrinos in constituting quarks, such a smaller neutrino
|
||
would mean that there could be three more families of quarks.
|
||
Consider the families of quarks with negative 1/3 charge, the d, s,
|
||
and b quarks. Following their pattern, there could be such a quark
|
||
composed of an electron neutrino and the x antineutrino, a muon and x
|
||
antineutrino, and one with a tau particle and an x antineutrino.
|
||
Similarly for the other members of each current family, there would
|
||
be three new kinds of quarks, which could constitute baryons and
|
||
mesons in the same way as currently recognized quarks.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The rules
|
||
for constituting charged leptons and quarks make it possible to
|
||
describe yet further families, if there are yet smaller neutrinos. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Permanence
|
||
of the proton.</i> Contrary to theories currently circulating about
|
||
the deeper structure of the basic particles of physics, this
|
||
ontological explanation of their constitution by weakons and
|
||
neutrinos implies that the proton never decays. That is the other
|
||
side of the assumption that baryons must have been part of the
|
||
universe from the beginning. Though their constitution can be
|
||
explained, they cannot be taken apart.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
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" name="Knot" align="bottom" width="393" height="229" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
structure of the baryon has been explained by holding that quarks
|
||
have a structure that rotates a circular pathway in one plane of
|
||
three dimensional space to another plane. Thus, three quarks rotate
|
||
circular pathways through all three independent planes of three
|
||
dimensional space in order to provide a complete pathway for weakons.
|
||
This suggest that the pathway of weakons in the proton is a knot in
|
||
three dimensional space that cannot be untied. (This model was
|
||
suggested by P. W. <font color="#0000ff"><u><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Atkins">Atkins</a></u></font>,
|
||
1981., p. 86.) There are two such knots, and since they are mirror
|
||
images of one another, they would correspond to the difference
|
||
between baryons and antibaryons.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">If,
|
||
therefore, quarks can be explained by neutrinos and weakons in some
|
||
such way, then given what has been said about the charged leptons,
|
||
all the ordinary objects in space are explained ontologically.
|
||
Physics recognizes 38 different basic particles, and we have seen how
|
||
spatiomaterialism might make it possible to postulate only 10. It can
|
||
explain the structure of ordinary material objects by starting with
|
||
nothing but the photon, three kinds of weakons, and six kinds of
|
||
neutrinos (three neutrinos and three antineutrinos). And as we have
|
||
seen, the photon may be simply another form of the charged weakon,
|
||
while the neutrinos may be just aspects of space that have to do with
|
||
how space interacts with weakons. It may be possible to explain
|
||
everything in the world by postulating nothing but space and three
|
||
kinds of weakons. All the rest could be just how they work together
|
||
to constitute the natural world. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Whatever
|
||
the total number of basic particles that must be postulated, this
|
||
ontological explanation of the basic objects of physics avoids having
|
||
to believe that everywhere in the vacuum there are particles of every
|
||
kind and their antiparticles. It is true that an energetic enough
|
||
photon to create any particle and its antiparticle “out of the
|
||
vacuum,” as they say. But it is not necessary to believe that all
|
||
the various kinds of particles recognized by physics are contained
|
||
everywhere in the vacuum, because if the vacuum is substantival space
|
||
and it provides the neutrino and antineutrino pairs, all the
|
||
different kinds of particles can be created together with their
|
||
antiparticles from them and weakons, wherever there is enough energy.
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
be sure, this ontological theory is speculative, and much more would
|
||
have to be said to defend this theory of basic objects in detail. But
|
||
the project of ontological philosophy would not be sunk, if this
|
||
explanation of the basic particles of physics is not correct, because
|
||
it is not necessary to give such an ontological in order to believe
|
||
that the world is constituted by space and matter as substances
|
||
enduring through time. I have included it, because it shows the power
|
||
of spatiomaterialism to reorient our ways of thinking about physics
|
||
and to open up new, more promising avenues of thought.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
covers all the basic issue of physics concerning the extreme of the
|
||
very small and the brief, leaving only the extreme of the very large
|
||
and long-lasting. In the same speculative spirit, let me suggest what
|
||
this ontological explanation of the truth of the laws of contemporary
|
||
implies about the beginning of the beginning, large scale structure,
|
||
and end of the universe. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</body>
|
||
</html>
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