550 lines
58 KiB
HTML
550 lines
58 KiB
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<title>Irreversible processes</title>
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<meta name="author" content="Amr Gharbeia">
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<meta name="changed" content="20150721;235122354104486">
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<body lang="en-GB" text="#99ccff" dir="ltr">
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">I<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC25" align="right" hspace="5" width="66" height="29" border="0">rreversible
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processes.</font> Since structural global regularities are simply the
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continued existence of material structures in a closed or isolated
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region, they seem rather trivial. But structural causation can have
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more dramatic effects when it is combined with material causation.
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Since material objects coincide with space, their unchanging
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geometrical structures can fit together with the geometrical
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structures involved in the tendency toward kinetic energy and the
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tendency toward randomness, since the latter also coincide with
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space. In both tendencies, there are geometrical structures that are
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wiped out by how bits of matter move and interact. The inherent
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geometrical structure of potential energy is lost in the tendency
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toward kinetic energy, and the geometrical structure of non-random
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distributions of causally relevant factors is lost in the tendency to
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randomness. Material structures can channel the flow of matter
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through these geometrical forms, because their geometrical structures
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coincide with parts of the same region of space where these
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tendencies are exhibited. The reason that those tendencies are called
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“free energy” is that material structures can thereby channel the
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thermodynamic flow of matter from potential energy through kinetic
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energy to evenly distributed heat to to <font color="#000000">bring
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about states of those regions that would not otherwise occur. That is
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how machines use free energy to do mechanical work. </font></font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
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makes it possible for machines to use free energy to do work can be
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explained ontologically, because we have already explained how
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material structures are ontological causes that structure the motion
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and interaction of other bits of matter in the region. Ordinary
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machines have unchanging structures that are large enough to think of
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them as ordinary macro-level material objects, by contrast to the
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micro-level objects mentioned in describing thermo<font color="#000000">dynamic
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processes</font>. Let us distinguish two ways that machines do work,
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depending on <font color="#000000">whether the free energy comes from
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the tendency toward kinetic energy or from the tendency toward
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randomness. </font></font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Free
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energy from the tendency toward kinetic energy.</b></i><i> </i>A
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machine has an unchanging geometrical structure as a whole that
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constrains how the parts of which it is composed can move and
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interact with one another. Potential energy also has a geometrical
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structure, and when the spatial relations among the forces involved
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combines with the unchanging structure of a material object, the
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tendency of potential energy to become kinetic energy can be
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channeled in ways that produce useful outcomes (although it often
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involves complex processes in which the kinetic energy is converted
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into other forms of potential energy and back again to kinetic energy
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in order to produce the kinds of changes that are desired). </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This can be
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seen in a wide variety of cases. For example, the potential energy of
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gravitation can be tapped by water wheels and other structural
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causes, such as cog wheels, levers, wedges, and the like, to release
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kinetic energy in a way that grinds corn, weaves cloth, or does other
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mechanical work. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Free
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energy from the tendency toward randomness.</b></i><i> </i>The
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nonrandom distributions of efficient causes that wipe themselves out
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in the tendency toward randomness are made up of objects on the
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micro-level, but since the nonrandom distribution itself is a
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geometrical structure of the region as a whole, it can fit together
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with macro-level material structures to do mechanical work.
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Distributions of three kinds of efficient causes had to be mentioned
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in explaining the tendency to randomness (the rest masses, kinetic
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energies, and momentums of molecules), and we can find examples of
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machines using each of them. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The most
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familiar example involves the uneven distribution of kinetic energy.
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The difference in temperature between two, spatially-separated sets
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of material objects is what enables the steam engine to tap the free
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energy that exists in the flow of kinetic energy from hot to cold.
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The kinetic energy released by combustion of fuel flows across the
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wall of a box to water, producing steam at high pressure, and its
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expansion against a piston in a cylinder does mechanical work, such
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as propelling a train along a track. Internal combustion engines are
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as much heat engines as steam engines, although they eliminate the
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step in which the flow of kinetic energy conducts heat from the
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combustion of fuel to the water being heated by burning the fuel in
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the very cylinder where the piston is pushed.</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The other
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two causally relevant factors whose uneven spatial distributions tend
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to wipe themselves out can also be tapped by structural causes to do
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work. The free expansion of a gas is used in jet propulsion, and the
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uniform direction of momentums contained in a wind can be caught by a
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sail to pull a boat along. In the latter case, it is even clearer
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that the free energy comes from the flow of matter through
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region-wide geometrical forms that is evening out the directions of
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momentum, for a sail can propel a boat across wind or, better yet,
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against it; the free energy comes, not just from going along with the
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wind, but from making the molecules’ directions of momentum more
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random. The same principle applies in wind mills and turbines. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
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either case, whenever machines use free energy to do work, the
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geometrical structure of some material object engages with some
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region-wide geometrical structures involved in the tendency toward
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kinetic energy or the tendency toward randomness so that the
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thermodynamic flow of matter toward evenly distributed heat is
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structured to do mechanical work. The kind of work done depends on
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how the material structures coincide with the geometrical structure
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of the potential energy or the nonrandom distribution of causally
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relevant factors on the macro level in the region. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In some
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machines, both tendencies are involved. For example, the potential
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energy of the forces exerted at one location are communicated in
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hydraulic machinery by using the tendency to randomness in liquids
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confined in cylinders to transfer the kinetic energy and momentum
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from one location to another. Electrical machinery works by the same
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principle, except that the potential energy is communicated by freely
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moving electrons confined to conductors, and the work is usually done
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because of the magnetic forces set up by moving electric charges.</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
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sum, there are two kinds of global regularities caused ontologically
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by material structures, reversible and irreversible processes. What
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makes irreversible processes different is that what is being
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structured is a thermodynamic flow of matter (that is, motion and
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interaction in the region of a kind that is changing from potential
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energy to kinetic energy or in which a nonrandom distribution of
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causally relevant factors is wiping itself out). When there is no
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thermodynamic flow of matter toward evenly distributed heat, entropy
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is already maximum, and the global regularity is just a kind of
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geometrical structure that holds of the whole region over a period of
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time because some of the material objects moving and interacting
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there are composite objects with geometrical structures that do not
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change. That kind of global regularity was illustrated in the last
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section by the box of gas and the interlocked rings. Any change that
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takes place in such a region wide process could take place in the
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opposite direction in time. But when a thermodynamic process is going
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on in the region and a material structure uses its free energy to do
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mechanical work, the change that occurs in the region is temporally
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asymmetric. The work done depends on their being matter flowing
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through geometrical forms from potential energy to evenly distributed
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heat, and since some free energy is always lost to increasing entropy
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in the process of using it to do mechanical work, the change taking
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place in a closed system cannot return to its starting point. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Since
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reversible structural global regularities do not depend on material
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global regularities (except for how material structures are a
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byproduct of the tendency of potential energy to become kinetic),
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they are not included in the following diagram of the relationships
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among global regularities. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="center" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: -3.18cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><img 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" name="GlbRSt" align="bottom" width="710" height="360" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
essential role of space as an ontological cause of global
|
||
regularities is confirmed by irreversible process, for it is what
|
||
makes it possible to combine material and structural global
|
||
regularities. This can be seen in the steam engine, the concrete
|
||
phenomenon that led to the discovery of the second law of
|
||
thermodynamics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
wholeness of space plays the same role in all global regularities: it
|
||
makes the motion and interaction of the bits of matter in the region
|
||
add up over time. But the structure of space plays a further role in
|
||
generating the material and structural global regularities, because
|
||
there is a geometrical aspect to how the motion and interaction adds
|
||
up as time passes. The regularity caused by material causation is
|
||
that two kinds of geometrical structures about the region as a whole
|
||
disappear, and the regularity caused by structural causation is that
|
||
the region contains material objects whose geometrical structures do
|
||
not change. In both cases, these geometrical structures are
|
||
superimposed on the uniform structure of the space in the region, and
|
||
that is what explains how these two global regularities can be
|
||
combined, for it is simply a matter of how the thermodynamic
|
||
structures fit together with the material structures. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Steam
|
||
engines, for example, are just material structures combined with
|
||
various thermodynamic<font color="#000000"> processes </font>in the
|
||
same region of space. The free energy consumed by steam engines is
|
||
kinetic energy that comes from combustion, that is, the tendency of
|
||
potential energy in the fuel to become the randomized kinetic energy
|
||
of heat. This kinetic energy is supplied where the material objects
|
||
losing some of their rest mass are located. But since that happens in
|
||
a part of steam engine, material structures can channel it to do work
|
||
before the tendency to randomness evens out the nonrandom
|
||
distribution of this randomized kinetic energy. It makes water in the
|
||
boiler heat up, and as the spatial distribution of causally relevant
|
||
factors tends to even out, and the momentum of the fast-moving
|
||
molecules drives a piston in a cylinder, doing mechanical work, such
|
||
as lifting a weight in a gravitational field. The way that the
|
||
unchanging geometrical structures of composite material objects
|
||
coincide in space with the region-wide geometrical structures that
|
||
are disappearing due to the thermodynamic flow of matter toward
|
||
evenly distributed heat is what explains how it is possible for heat
|
||
engines to tap the free energy contained in such thermodynamic<font color="#000000">
|
||
processes </font>to do work, and that confirms the role of space an
|
||
ontological cause in both kinds of global regularities.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Perpetual
|
||
motion machines. </b></i>These examples of machines doing work
|
||
illustrate how material structures can combine with the free energy
|
||
contained the thermodynamic flow of matter toward evenly distributed
|
||
heat to produce changes that would not otherwise occur. But since
|
||
machines can do work, it might seem that they could structure it in
|
||
ways that would restore the free energy they are using. By returning
|
||
kinetic energy to its potential form or imposing a new nonrandom
|
||
distribution of causal factors on the dynamic process, structural
|
||
causes would be doing work without entropy increasing, that is,
|
||
without using up free energy. If the work done restored the
|
||
geometrical structure containing the free energy it uses, it would be
|
||
a machine that continues doing work forever, or a perpetual motion
|
||
machine. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is not, however, possible, because any machine that structures a
|
||
thermodynamic flow of matter toward evenly distributed heat is itself
|
||
part of a larger process in which such a thermodynamic flow is taking
|
||
place. The machine itself is not exempt from the law of entropy
|
||
increase, if only because some of the free energy becomes evenly
|
||
distributed heat by flowing through the machine. The machine itself
|
||
is just another part of a region where the material global regularity
|
||
holds.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This can be
|
||
illustrated by a pendulum swinging in a gravitational field, the
|
||
example used to illustrate the tendency toward kinetic energy. The
|
||
material structure constrains the motion and interactions of its
|
||
parts so that the gravitational potential energy that the bob has at
|
||
its maximum height is released as kinetic energy, and that kinetic
|
||
energy is used to do the work of restoring it to its potential form.
|
||
But it cannot go on forever, because the potential energy that is
|
||
given up in each swing is never fully restored. When it is kinetic,
|
||
the pendulum gives up part of its energy to other objects with which
|
||
it interacts (for example, as it collides with molecules in the air
|
||
and causes friction in the rope suspending it), according to the
|
||
tendency of potential energy to become kinetic energy describes. And
|
||
the tendency toward randomness means that the thermodynamic flow of
|
||
matter through region-wide geometrical forms continues until the
|
||
matter becomes kinetic energy on the micro level and winds up as heat
|
||
energy evenly distributed throughout the region. Thus, the pendulum
|
||
slows down and eventually stops swinging altogether. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Similarly,
|
||
an elastic ball cannot bounce forever, using kinetic energy to
|
||
exchange gravitational potential energy for the electromagnetic
|
||
potential energy embodied in the ball’s deformation, because once
|
||
the energy is released as kinetic energy, it is not fully restored.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">More
|
||
generally, free energy can be stored in machines, either as potential
|
||
energy, kinetic energy on the macro level, or as cyclic
|
||
transformations between potential and kinetic energy. But when energy
|
||
is kinetic, interactions with other material objects divide up the
|
||
energy until the energy is randomized on the micro level and, as
|
||
heat, becomes evenly distributed throughout the region. Machines
|
||
produce less free energy than they consume, because some of the
|
||
thermodynamic flow of matter being channeled to do work flows
|
||
directly through the machine itself toward evenly distributed heat in
|
||
the region.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
ultimate randomization of kinetic energy depends, as we have seen, on
|
||
three factors. The material structure <i>itself </i>resists the
|
||
randomization of two of these factors, but there is one kind of
|
||
efficient cause whose randomization it cannot resist. The unchanging
|
||
structure of the composite object means that the rest masses of its
|
||
parts do not become evenly distributed in the region. Moreover, since
|
||
they move together as a composite object, the parts all continue to
|
||
have much the same directions of momentum. But the parts can have
|
||
different kinetic energies (such as vibrations within the forces
|
||
holding them together), and kinetic energy does tend to become evenly
|
||
distributed among them, for any inequality in the distribution of
|
||
kinetic energy is a geometrical structure that tends to wipe itself
|
||
out. This aspect of tendency toward randomness will continue until
|
||
heat is evenly distributed throughout the region and everything has
|
||
the same temperature. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
are, therefore, no perfectly efficient machines. Machines use free
|
||
energy to do work, but as they do, some of it is inevitably lost as
|
||
heat energy, which becomes evenly distributed in the region,
|
||
increasing entropy in the region. The efficiency of a machine is
|
||
measured by how much of that free energy is actually made to do
|
||
mechanical work as that happens. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Examples
|
||
of structural global regularities from nature. </b></i><font color="#000000">Using
|
||
machines designed by humans to </font>illustrate structured
|
||
thermodynamic<font color="#000000"> processes should not, however,
|
||
keep us from seeing how structural ontological causes are responsible
|
||
for global regularities found in nature. I will describe some of them
|
||
here, because these varieties of structural causation will be used to
|
||
explain how reproductive causation get started in planetary systems. </font></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
unchanging structures of atoms are, for example, structural causes of
|
||
the molecules that form naturally from them. The relevant geometrical
|
||
structure of the atom is the number of electrons the nucleus can bind
|
||
in the outermost shell. The ways in which the geometrical structures
|
||
of the atoms and the forces exerted by their parts fit together
|
||
geometrically explains why their motion and interaction add up over
|
||
time in the structure of space to the formation of molecules, a
|
||
composite object with a higher level of part-whole complexity. The
|
||
free energy for their bonds comes from the forces exerted by their
|
||
parts (the positive charges of the nuclei attracting the negative
|
||
charges of the electrons), and since the potential energy released by
|
||
their formation becomes kinetic energy (or radiation) that eventually
|
||
becomes heat evenly distributed throughout the region, it is
|
||
irreversible. The formation of molecules is, therefore, a naturally
|
||
occurring irreversible structural global regularity. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
a similar way, the structures of the molecules can, in turn, be
|
||
structural causes of yet higher levels of part-whole complexity. The
|
||
formation of crystals involves the attachment of one molecule after
|
||
another to a growing, regular geometrical structure.<sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote1anc" href="#sdfootnote1sym"><sup>1</sup></a>[1]</sup>
|
||
It is an example of structural causation, because the growth depends
|
||
on how the geometrical structures of the molecules fit together with
|
||
the crystal structure created by the attachment of the last molecule
|
||
and how the forces exerted by corresponding parts affect one another.
|
||
It is an irreversible structural global regularity, because it
|
||
depends on the free energy supplied by forces exerted by their parts
|
||
(often hydrogen bonds, which are weaker than those responsible for
|
||
the molecules). And the result is a new kind of material structure.
|
||
The kinetic energy released becomes part of the evenly distributed
|
||
heat, and the bonds of the molecules making up the crystal cannot be
|
||
broken without additional free energy, that is, unless enough energy
|
||
is concentrated at just the right point at the right moment to free
|
||
the molecule from its bonds to the crystal. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In living
|
||
objects, more complex structures of molecules have more complex
|
||
effects, such as the spontaneous formation of plasma membranes in
|
||
water and of complexes made up of various protein molecules from
|
||
their random motion and interaction. Plasma membranes are
|
||
self-assembling structures used as barriers in biological processes.
|
||
They are made of phospholipids, which are long, skinny molecules that
|
||
tend to line up like matches alongside one another as sheets (because
|
||
of weak, Van der Waals forces between them). The sheets form double
|
||
layers in water (since their hydrophobic surfaces are pushed
|
||
together), and the sheets tend to close on themselves in water to
|
||
form spheres. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Similarly,
|
||
protein molecules are amino acid molecules linked together like a
|
||
chain (by peptide bonds), and the geometrical structures (or
|
||
“conformations”) they take on in water often fit together in such
|
||
a way that weaker forces between corresponding parts hold them
|
||
together and make them stable.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Molecules
|
||
have structural effects other than merely forming higher levels of
|
||
part-whole complexity in material objects. They can act more like
|
||
machines. For example, their structure can give them a <i>behavior </i>as
|
||
a whole that produces another kind of material structure, which then
|
||
serves a structural cause. This occurs in protein molecules, the long
|
||
chains of various kinds of amino acid molecules that are the basic
|
||
micro-level machines in living organisms. Such chains can bend at
|
||
their chemical bonds so that weaker forces exerted by the various
|
||
amino acids bind parts of the chain to one another, giving the whole
|
||
chain a further geometrical structure as a whole. (That is, the
|
||
unchanging structure of the protein molecule not only constrains the
|
||
motions of its links relative to one another as they move in the
|
||
water and determines how the chain can bend, but it also thereby
|
||
determines which kinds of amino acids will be next to one another
|
||
when it bends in certain ways and, so, where weaker bonds will form
|
||
among the parts.) The resulting “conformation” of the protein is
|
||
usually the relevant material structure that structures thermodynamic
|
||
processes in living organisms. (The DNA molecule has a similar
|
||
behavior as a whole: the structure of the molecule so constrains the
|
||
motions of its parts relative to one another that DNA winds up as a
|
||
double helix.)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Molecules
|
||
can also be material structures that produce new material structures
|
||
by <i>acting on </i>other molecules. They are called “catalysts”.
|
||
But the most dramatic examples are proteins whose conformational
|
||
structure makes them “enzymes”. Such proteins hold other
|
||
molecules together and distort their shapes so that new chemical
|
||
bonds form among their parts, replacing the old, and thereby
|
||
producing molecules that are otherwise not likely to be formed at the
|
||
prevailing temperature. Such molecular machines are responsible for
|
||
the replication of DNA and the synthesis of proteins. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In DNA
|
||
replication, proteins in conjunction with a DNA molecule are a
|
||
structural cause that catalyzes a long series of chemical changes in
|
||
other molecules so that another molecule acquires its structure. The
|
||
geometrical structure of the DNA and protein molecules does not
|
||
change, but it temporarily binds other molecules in a way that causes
|
||
bonds to form in them. Each such structural effect leaves both the
|
||
original DNA molecule and the copy being formed in a slightly
|
||
different state, so that a different kind of molecule will interact
|
||
with it the next time and the whole series results in a copy of the
|
||
original sequence. In a similar way, a series of structural effects
|
||
is responsible for synthesizing strands of amino acids into proteins,
|
||
this time, using an RNA molecule as the template and consuming energy
|
||
from other molecules in the process. But the structural cause in this
|
||
case is an enormously complex object with fifty-some different kinds
|
||
of proteins and several strands of RNA (together with tRNA to supply
|
||
the parts).</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Enzymes
|
||
bring out the appropriateness of thinking of the unchanging
|
||
structures of molecules as machines. The free energy for the
|
||
catalyst’s work comes from the potential energy of the forces by
|
||
which the enzyme binds with the other molecules (the “substrate”),
|
||
but that energy is not ultimately lost to randomness, because it is
|
||
paid back from the free energy released in their forming stronger
|
||
bonds as the other molecules are freed from the enzyme. Thus, the
|
||
enzyme can act again. Enzymes can even construct complex molecules
|
||
with weaker, energy-rich bonds by extracting free energy from
|
||
energy-rich molecules available in the medium.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">On
|
||
a larger scale, what are called “physical properties” of bulk
|
||
matter, from rigidity and elasticity to transparency, color and
|
||
conductivity, are dispositions to behave in certain ways under
|
||
certain circumstances. But they can all be explained as irreversible
|
||
structural global regularities. The conditions under which the
|
||
disposition is exhibited supply a form of free energy, and the way
|
||
the material structures at the micro level within the composite
|
||
object structures that thermodynamic processes explains why the
|
||
physical object behaves as it does under those conditions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
simplest case is rigidity itself, in which a force exerted on part of
|
||
a composite object is communicated to other parts because of the
|
||
bonds that are responsible for its unchanging geometrical structure. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is the
|
||
ontological explanation of the principle of the lever. The force
|
||
exerted at the end of a lever on one side of the fulcrum moves the
|
||
other end of the lever through a distance that depends on the
|
||
geometrical structure, and thus, if the distance the other end must
|
||
move is less, a weak force operating over a longer distance becomes a
|
||
strong force operating over a shorter distance. It is simply how the
|
||
material structure coincides with the free energy, in this case, the
|
||
force being exerted on one end of the lever.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
collisions of billiard balls are an example of how rigidity itself is
|
||
a structural cause. As the first ball hits the second and comes to a
|
||
stop, the kinetic energy is absorbed, but since they are elastic, the
|
||
energy is stored as potential energy in the forces among the parts of
|
||
the billiard balls, and as those forces restore the shapes of the
|
||
balls, their potential energy becomes kinetic energy again, making
|
||
the second ball move away (conserving the total momentum of their
|
||
interaction). The structural cause in the billiard balls is what is
|
||
unchanging about the spatial relations of their parts as they absorb
|
||
and release energy. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
<i>malleable </i>materials, by contrast, the structural causes lie
|
||
wholly in the unchanging structures of the parts, because they are
|
||
the only geometrical structures that do not change when the
|
||
disposition is exhibited. Energy is absorbed locally from the forces
|
||
imposed, because the molecules have shapes that allow them to switch
|
||
their bonds with one another, giving the parts of the composite
|
||
object new spatial relations to one another as parts of the whole.
|
||
That is how the motion and interaction of the material structures add
|
||
up in space, when they start out with such bonds to one another and
|
||
free energy is supplied by a force being impressed. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Material
|
||
objects also have other mass properties that can be explained in
|
||
similar ways, such as transparency, electrical conductivity, heat
|
||
conductivity. The colors that material objects appear to have when
|
||
illuminated by the whole spectrum of visible photons comes from some
|
||
wavelengths being absorbed, while others are reflected. The material
|
||
structure responsible for this global regularity lies in various
|
||
aspects of the micro-structure, which interact differently with
|
||
different wavelengths of light. (But colors in this sense are, of
|
||
course, physical properties, and they must be distinguished from the
|
||
appearances of colors to the subject, which are <i>qualia.</i>) </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
explanation of dispositions by material and structural ontological
|
||
causation is a reduction of those regularities to spatiomaterialism,
|
||
and since that demonstrates their (conditional) ontological
|
||
necessity, it explains the nature of the casual connection involved
|
||
in these efficient causes. In the case of dispositions, the
|
||
regularities connecting causes and effects are just irreversible
|
||
structural global regularities, whose ontological causes are like
|
||
machines built into nature. The test conditions of the dispositions
|
||
are the efficient causes, and what happens are the effects. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" dir="rtl" class="western" align="right" style="margin-bottom: 0.42cm; line-height: 100%">
|
||
<br><br>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<div id="sdfootnote1">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote1sym" href="#sdfootnote1anc">1</a><sup>[1]</sup>
|
||
When they cool faster, crystals that form in different regions may
|
||
fit together irregularly as <i>amorphous crystals </i>or even form a
|
||
<i>glass </i>in which they are locked in bonds that are not as tight
|
||
and strong as they would be in a crystal.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</body>
|
||
</html>
|