1070 lines
101 KiB
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1070 lines
101 KiB
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<title>Reproductive causation: Revolutionary evolution</title>
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<meta name="author" content="Amr Gharbeia">
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font color="#ff0000"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>R<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkCR_07" align="right" hspace="5" width="103" height="32" border="0">eproductive
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causation: Revolutionary evolution.</b></font></font> There is
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another reproductive global regularity, because there is a further
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way in which reproductive cycles can work together with the space
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containing them to generate another global regularity. It can occur
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only when reproductive cycles have already been gradually changing
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for some time in the direction of natural perfection, but it takes
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evolution beyond that the limit of optimum. The ontological cause
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comes from a more radical variation in the organisms that have
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already evolved, namely, higher levels of part-whole complexity in
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the structures of the organisms going through reproductive cycles.
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Since such a random variation begins a new stage of gradual
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evolution, which can in turn make possible yet another such
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revolutionary change, it generates is a series of stages of gradual
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evolution, and thus, this global regularity is “revolutionary
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evolution.” </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
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is evident that something more is needed to explain evolution on
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earth. Though the radiation of increasingly powerful organisms into
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all possible ecological niches can explain some of the variety among
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organisms, the basic reproductive global regularity implies that
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evolution is just one long, incremental change. Though gradualism is
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what Darwin expected, Darwinists now believe that the organisms found
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on earth are far too various, if not also too complex, to be
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explained by a gradual change in the direction of ever greater
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fitness. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Indeed,
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there is good evidence against gradual evolution. The fossil record
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reveals that, time and again, after a long period of little change,
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new species show up quickly, usually many species at about the same
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time, only to be followed by another long period of very little
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change. Called “punctuated equilibrium,” this phenomenon cannot
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always be explained as a radiation in which organisms of some kind
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acquire the power to tap a new source of usable energy in the
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environment. Something besides the addition of one new trait after
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another is helping determine the overall course of evolution.</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Reproductive
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causation offers, however, a simple and plausible explanation of
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these phenomena. The further way that space can be combined with
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reproductive cycles to constitute a global regularity entails stages
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of gradual evolution. Such stages can explain not only why
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evolutionary equilibria are punctuated by the appearance of many new
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species all at once, but also why organisms are so much more varied
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than would be expected of gradual evolution. Furthermore, the
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sequence of stages makes evolution change in the direction of a
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natural perfection that is far grander sense than merely maximizing
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the holistic power of both organisms and ecology. Let us consider,
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first, the ontological cause of revolutionary evolution, and then the
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ontological effect itself. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font color="#993366"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>O<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkCR_08" align="right" hspace="5" width="127" height="37" border="0">ntological
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cause: levels of part-whole complexity.</b></font></font> Though the
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basic ontological cause is reproductive cycles, they can help
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generate another reproductive global regularity, because reproductive
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cycles can combine with space to cause ontologically a new stage of
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gradual evolution. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
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goes through cycles of reproduction are the many structural causes
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bundled together as the complex material structures that I have been
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calling “organisms.” That part-whole complexity about each
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organism is what makes it possible for a gradual evolution to go on
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for a long period, because that is the source of the wide range of
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random variations that can be tried out and that can accumulate as
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the many new traits that make organisms increasingly complex,
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diverse, and powerful. But that same aspect of the nature of
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organisms suggests another possibility. Once organisms have
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approached natural perfection for organisms of their kind, it may be
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possible for those organisms to serve as various structural causes
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that are bundled together in a new organism, so that they all go
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through reproductive cycles as a whole. That is what I will call a
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“higher level of part-whole complexity” in organisms. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Organisms
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are complex mechanisms that can fairly be said to <i>behave </i>in
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various ways, because they are bundles of structural causes whose
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effects work together to control all possible conditions that affect
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their reproduction. Such parts are responsible for the
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non-reproductive structural effects that are called “traits,” but
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their functions, or the relevant conditions they control, may lie
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either in the organism (determining its physical properties and how
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they change) or in the world in which the organism exists (such as
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acquiring energy from the world and sending offspring into it). </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
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simplest way that a higher level of part-whole complexity is possible
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is for such organisms to be bundled together as a complex material
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structure that goes through reproductive cycles as a whole. Each
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simpler organism that is included would then be a structural cause
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with effects that are (or become) functional traits of the higher
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level organism. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">(In this
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case, it is a higher level of part-whole complexity of primary
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structures. A "primary structure" is a material structure
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that can generate an entire reproductive cycle, including both
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reproductive and non-reproductive work, and since the lower level
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organism is a primary structure, a higher level of part-whole
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complexity based on such organisms is a higher level of part-whole
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complexity in primary structures. I use this simple case to introduce
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the cause of evolutionary stages, though as we shall see, there are
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other ways in which higher levels of part-whole complexity can cause
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additional stages of evolution.) </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But in
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order to go through reproductive cycles as a higher level organism,
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the structural causes combined in its material structure must work
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together in the cycle to control conditions that affect its
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reproduction, and what is more, all the parts must be reproduced in
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order for the higher level organism to be reproduce. Thus, it is also
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necessary to <i>coordinate their behavior</i>. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">A
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<i>behavior guidance system </i>is, therefore, required for organisms
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to be combined as parts of a higher-level organism (that is, an
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organism with a higher level of part-whole complexity in primary
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structures). Some such system must be part of the random variation
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that gives rise to the higher level organism. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">I will call
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it a “<i>biological </i>behavior guidance system.” (This is to
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distinguish it from another kind of behavior guidance system that
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will also turn up as part of this global regularity, namely, the
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<i>animal </i>behavior guidance system, whose function is to guide
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the behavior of whole organisms in acting on other objects in space.)
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The function of the biological behavior guidance system is to
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coordinate the behavior of the lower level organisms (or primary
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structures) of which it is composed so that it can go through
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reproductive cycles as a whole. And its physical nature depends on
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the nature of the organisms (or primary structures) whose behavior is
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being coordinated. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">By
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coordinating the lower level organisms (or primary structures), the
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biological behavior guidance system will have structural effects that
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can control conditions that affect reproduction. But in order to go
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through reproductive cycles, it must also be able to reproduce the
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higher level organism as a whole. But this is possible, because its
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parts are organisms that evolved during the previous stage and (as
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primary structures), they are already able to reproduce themselves.
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The reproduction of the higher level organism is simply a matter of
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coordinating its parts to reproduce as part of the same process. But
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the capacity to control the reproduction of its parts can also be
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used by the higher level organism to do non-reproductive work.)</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
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general, it is already possible to see how a higher level of
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part-whole complexity would cause a new stage of evolution. Assuming
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that it is possible for reproductive cycles with such higher level
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organisms to be tried out as a random variation on organisms that
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have already evolved, they would have the power of a whole army of
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the structures of lower level organisms to control conditions that
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affect its reproduction as a whole. This quantum leap in power would
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enable them to begin a new stage of evolution. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since they
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would come to exist at first from a radical random variation, the
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higher level organisms would start off simple, uniform and weak. But
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assuming that they go through reproductive cycles, reproductive
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causation would shape them to control conditions affecting
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reproduction that were simply beyond the reach of lower level
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organisms acting separately. That is, as random variations in the
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kinds, numbers, and arrangement of the lower level organisms
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(including how their behavior is coordinated) were tried out, the
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scarcity due to their own population growth would impose a natural
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selection on them, and the higher level organism would become more
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complex, diverse and powerful. There would be enough new powers to be
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acquired for an entire stage of gradual evolution, because the
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potentially functional traits of a higher level organism are caused
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by the kinds, numbers and arrangements of its lower level parts.
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Thus, organisms would change gradually in the direction of natural
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perfection for organisms of their kind. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As they
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approach natural perfection for organisms of their kind, however,
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another such radical random variation may be possible. Its yet higher
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level of part-whole complexity would begin another stage of gradual
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evolution. Thus, as one stage followed another, evolution would be an
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overall change in the direction of what might be called the “natural
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perfection of life,” in which increased power comes from higher
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levels of part-whole complexity. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">The
|
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spatial derivation of the ontological cause.</font> Higher levels of
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part-whole complexity in the structures of the organisms going
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through reproductive cycles are, therefore, the ontological cause of
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the revolutionary episodes in evolution that being new stages of
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evolution. Though, as we shall see, such stages of evolution follow
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one another in such a way that evolution is change in the direction
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of a grander form of natural perfection, higher levels of part-whole
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complexity are just a complication of the ontological cause that is
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already at work in causing gradual change in the direction of natural
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perfection, the basic reproductive global regularity. Evolutionary
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change is still just how the wholeness of space makes reproductive
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cycles add up as time passes. But in causing revolutionary change,
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space works together with reproductive cycles in a further way,
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because the structure of space within the region is what makes it
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possible for the structures of organisms from one evolutionary stage
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to be bundled together as the various structural causes making up a
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higher level organism. </font></font></font>
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||
</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
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relevant part-whole relation is a kind of spatial relation, and it is
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because the structures of the the lower level organisms coincide with
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space that it is possible for them to be combined as the several
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parts of a higher level organism. This role of space as an
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ontological cause resembles the role it played in causing structural
|
||
global regularities, for the structure of space is what made it
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possible for simpler material objects to be combined as composite
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objects with geometrical structures and for such material structures
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to move around in space. And the new (derivative) ontological cause
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||
also comes from a new kind of unity, the way in which the structures
|
||
of lower level organisms are combined as parts of a single higher
|
||
level structure (just as material structures came from a new kind of
|
||
unity of material substances that gave them an unchanging geometrical
|
||
structure as a whole).</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
the part-whole relation in space is also what makes higher level
|
||
organisms possible, organisms are not just material objects. They
|
||
must reproduce as well as do various kinds of non-reproductive work
|
||
in order to go through reproductive cycles. Thus, combining simpler
|
||
organisms as parts of a higher level organism cannot usually be
|
||
accomplished by simply attaching them to one another. They need a
|
||
biological behavior guidance system to coordinate the behavior of
|
||
their parts. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What makes
|
||
reproductive cycles a different kind of ontological cause from the
|
||
complex material structures that go through them is their <i>temporal
|
||
structure</i>. That is, the new kind of unity behind the ontological
|
||
cause of reproductive global regularities is the temporal unity of
|
||
the cycle of reproduction. The way that time is part of the nature of
|
||
the ontological cause is what makes reproductive global regularities
|
||
so dramatically different from structural global regularities. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It is,
|
||
however, space that makes <i>revolutionary </i>evolution so different
|
||
from gradual evolution. Space together with the structures of lower
|
||
level organisms constitute the higher level organism, and since space
|
||
has a structure that allows higher level organisms to go through
|
||
reproductive cycles, the wholeness of space plays its familiar role,
|
||
making reproductive cycles add up over time so that the scarcity
|
||
caused by their multiplication imposes natural selection them and
|
||
organisms evolve gradually toward natural perfection for organisms of
|
||
their kind (and help make the ecology naturally perfect in the
|
||
process). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Since
|
||
wholes in part-whole relations can be parts of more inclusive wholes,
|
||
there can be a series of part-whole relations in the structures of
|
||
material objects. Keeping track of them is what will enable us to
|
||
trace the stages of gradual evolution that occur in its overall
|
||
course. Since the notion of “a <i>series </i>of levels of
|
||
part-whole complexity” is so central to this argument, it is worth
|
||
the risk of belaboring the point to be clear about what is meant by
|
||
it.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To
|
||
illustrate what I mean, consider a box containing many similar
|
||
cartons each filled with objects of some kind. Both the box and the
|
||
cartons are wholes made up of parts, but the parts in the box are
|
||
themselves wholes, namely, cartons, each containing many parts of
|
||
some kind. It is even clearer how levels of part-whole complexity can
|
||
form a series, each nested inside the next, when there are more than
|
||
two levels of part-whole relations. Each of the cartons contained in
|
||
the box may contain objects that are themselves containers of many
|
||
similar objects (such as packs of cigarettes). Or going in the
|
||
direction of the larger, the boxes of cartons of packs of cigarettes
|
||
may be loaded together in a semi-truck’s shipping container which,
|
||
in turn, is contained within a ship’s hull. There is, in principle,
|
||
no limit to the number of levels of part-whole relations in a series.
|
||
(In the decimal representations of numbers, for example, each decimal
|
||
place represents a whole that is made up of ten “parts” in the
|
||
decimal place to its right, and there is no limit to the number of
|
||
decimal places in numbers.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However,
|
||
the “wholes” that are relevant to reproducing organisms are not
|
||
just spatial structures made up of spatial parts, but rather
|
||
spatiotemporal wholes made up of parts generating structural effects,
|
||
that is, cycles of structural effects. Thus, a better, though still
|
||
rough, model for a series of levels of part-whole complexity would be
|
||
the levels of government into which individuals are organized in the
|
||
United States: local, state and federal. Taking individuals to be the
|
||
parts in which the simplest structural effects, local government can
|
||
be seen as wholes that are then parts of state governments, which are
|
||
wholes that are, in turn, parts of the federal government. There are
|
||
three levels at which structural effects are bundled together as
|
||
wholes that are, in turn, bundled together as (complex) structural
|
||
effects on a higher level of government. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Kinds
|
||
of levels of part-whole complexity.</font> When a series of levels of
|
||
part-whole complexity is found in a single organism, there is a
|
||
determinate order to the material structures involved. And since
|
||
reproductive causation works from simpler to more complex organisms,
|
||
the stages of evolution by which the levels of organization
|
||
accumulate have a determinate temporal order. But the actual series
|
||
of levels of part-whole complexity that determines the overall course
|
||
of evolution are of two or three different kinds, and each kind of
|
||
part-whole complexity involves a different series of levels. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
basic and most obvious series is the series of “levels of
|
||
biological organization.” They are the kind of part-whole
|
||
complexity that has been mentioned thus far in describing the
|
||
ontological cause of revolutionary evolution, in which lower level
|
||
organisms are bundled together as parts of a higher level organism to
|
||
go through reproductive cycles as a whole. (Since the material
|
||
structures of independent organisms are primary structures, which can
|
||
generate all the structural effects required to complete an entire
|
||
reproductive cycle, including both reproductive and non-reproductive
|
||
work, these are levels of part-whole complexity in primary
|
||
structures.)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Multicellular
|
||
organisms are the best example of them. Indeed, they are named after
|
||
the level of part-whole complexity that is obvious in them (being
|
||
composed of many cells). But it is only one in a series of levels of
|
||
biological organization. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It should
|
||
not be surprising that there is at least one more level of part-whole
|
||
complexity in primary structures in the direction of the small from
|
||
multicellular organisms, because each of the cells is itself a whole
|
||
composed of parts that are also primary structures. The behavior of
|
||
each cell is known to be determined somehow by many genes, and genes
|
||
do both reproductive and non-reproductive work There is however, as
|
||
we shall see, an additional level of part-whole complexity between
|
||
cells and genes (and genes themselves have the part-whole structure
|
||
required to be complex material structures of the kind required for
|
||
reproductive causation). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Moreover,
|
||
there is a level of biological organization above multicellular
|
||
organisms, for example in insect colonies and, in a unique way as we
|
||
shall see, in human society, yielding five distinct levels of
|
||
part-whole complexity in primary structures altogether. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Within
|
||
the structure of multicellular animals, however, there is another
|
||
series of levels of part-whole complexity. It occurs in the nervous
|
||
system. “Levels of neurological organization,” as I will call
|
||
them, are capable of causing stages of evolution, because the nervous
|
||
system is the system for guiding the behavior of multicellular
|
||
animals, that is, its “animal behavior guidance system.”</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The nervous
|
||
system is composed mainly of neurons, and since neurons are cells,
|
||
they can also be organized at a series of level of neurological
|
||
organization. Not only individual neurons, but whole systems of
|
||
neurons can be multiplied in number and fit together as parts of a
|
||
super-system of neurons at the next level. But they are not levels of
|
||
part-whole complexity in primary structures, because systems of
|
||
neurons are not able to reproduce on their own. They are levels of
|
||
part-whole complexity in a structure set up by the animal's primary
|
||
structure. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since each
|
||
higher level of neurological organization can open up an entire range
|
||
of powers that were previously out of reach, the evolution of a
|
||
higher level can begin a whole new stage of evolution. Then, as it
|
||
approaches natural perfection for organisms with its level of
|
||
neurological organization, yet another level can be tried out, and
|
||
thus, the series of neurological levels can cause a series of stages
|
||
in the evolution of multicellular animals. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Let me
|
||
emphasize that, since the nervous system is an organ set up by the
|
||
biological behavior guidance system of multicellular animals, the
|
||
stages caused by levels of neurological organization are quite
|
||
different from stages caused by levels of biological organization.
|
||
Neurological levels do not require a <i>new </i>biological behavior
|
||
guidance system to coordinate the behavior of the lower level
|
||
organisms, because the parts are neurons or systems of neurons and
|
||
their behavior is already coordinated by the multicellular biological
|
||
behavior guidance system. That is what enables them to guide the
|
||
behavior of the animal. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
there are as many as seven levels of neurological organization, the
|
||
last three also depend on a higher level of part-whole complexity in
|
||
the biological series as well. The level of biological organization
|
||
above multicellular animals will be called the “social” level,
|
||
and as we shall see, when the nervous system is used as a biological
|
||
behavior guidance system to coordinate the behavior of the
|
||
multicellular animals, what evolves are a kind of organism that will
|
||
be called a “spiritual animal.” </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Three of
|
||
the levels of neurological organization occur only in spiritual
|
||
animals, and thus, there is an important difference between two parts
|
||
of that series of levels, the levels of neurological organization in
|
||
<i>multicellular </i>animal behavior guidance systems and the levels
|
||
of neurological organization in <i>spiritual </i>animal behavior
|
||
guidance systems. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
order to keep these levels of organization straight and to provide a
|
||
map of the overall course of evolution, all the relevant levels of
|
||
part-whole complexity are catalogued here. And before tracing the
|
||
individual stages, I will look ahead to what spatiomaterialism
|
||
implies about the evolutionary stages involve in each series of
|
||
levels of organization. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: -0.64cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img 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jZsTyuE4gHg6tWr569evXry8z8W5m5ZY2GnnaLlg9TPdL7/29/wM5fnz19Tz78W2nAXPitKmGXFWc+fY0zakE+b1kyDrwmsVxqsnhT/op+44fD99xiyfgKwnOUIlhAR8vr15uam2MdBThjC4VMFaxOFZ1hgLc3dumXecOi0U7R8UL8tZH3/448//fT4+SsJy+uqDVchR6+U0zhXaAj2NiV54pHgE0w9efLy5ZMnCNaUBquXpIYsIOtHIOvx41fOqgVMeZJjZB57Dsg8eS7Oe82ff86Je8ULPedckR4uaLB6TTayvseY9fPjJzKcUNdLcEx4JGdi6/lzs7SMQvD/MeqJdfgJt/REGnyiaO2hnmP1nPr7rS/7/a9JFukxPj5+YtcrGX2q6TBFSP1MeiyMiMPiSWsfy6ytrT2kKZYGq7dkhqz/GR6emJiZWVpa+sfPNpmccFQEHC9BT8RTj9UiXP9AORhwKPWPpYXbGLD0faweUxVZhJaLbIA9eWKxcU0toRbmcCDUn0L3noisgYHo8PD4xMStmZmFhYUlB9USZsFxTcGVEKtbUzxgabB6TEBWOAxkmWgRXNWqgcyC47qam0OsKF5xrvRI2FPqV8mampq6RZqpkRsbUrdN3VJlGeBPmlv0LFyPuNIBqwdlkTUyMj6ObE3dcpQAxGKppsSUXepR56LjiBXGK/2l9x4UJysMZAFaBJddtahUc1Rzikfh5aJRzpUOWL0njBVI1oBkq0bDMExWY6bScV1FTaw0V72ofgstZKtGKgu1MDmd4VV4RcmVBqv31C/RIrZq5cBYNR3XVTisueph9VtoudJVFc/qgtLIjr2kXvW9+1VmQVVZw9XN6jQ+dRTW90i7WIxtXUvZBrqeVUWM0QeGmqwu1XXBciDsxizZxBh+ywHI6rSHtK6lG4PVKjG2tDA3NTKgwepOBRistUdLc+NRHbK6UwEG65e1RwtTGqwuVYDB+s8va0tTIxqs7lSwwXp4S4PVpTLB2t0XG9n9/Z2tHfwjtaNsV2t/3/Hwzi7a2d/fJYM7aCNLlsjUzq4Gq9clwdqtSML2GStt5RnLm32cV7Zr+9/paLZygnZAZ2iwkgUbSGCJsSsEiznjqMHqHQkw8hWmgMWQAIQpSyEnL7Y5DbsUdHb3s/QknZblgWh/V4aiS5ZFO/lLfBo2LjlYWcYqDEteXWmwelyCJ3apgFVi+B9gOgHGrrIcLNyu7GxlrxhyAuTtQyEOFj7FDmG7UilxG/jIwapQxGKHBNYJq5yxE0K14WCowepuCZ52thSw8oAZwrQDY9gJRRvaPryEbXgme3mWtYG1ewLc0HZ+V5rgkY/BkAgbZ5XKJYJ1yc4OaSzcrzO4arB6QiZPKlilCsOuR3L2acKF25VSqXSGQG3tZu0RK4/clOwmCKxDhjjB3i6jrQpNu3Y0WJ+AHMGC+INdn61glMoTWLidvzyE7cvDCgyJJXZ5JWECguxg7QqwtsRQiCYALOCsBMxSEDvRYPW2HMHi/wCQK5gUicn7IYSby+xW9rICgyLuVvJmxGKwfaW+QxRzLCAMeCJTV7BB9FHJPHO/gaHB6gm15gZpntX/rsNVqaEJDVZ3q0V33q/qzqH2Kw0Dlgary6U/0tFqiTRYWi2RBkurJdJgabVEGiytlkiDpdUSMbYbTHUCrN9Y8lLQ+bCbxfp2G1+zy9TuX6E2oTaDVcOAU087FLqW6lhsU3NbrXflciWYKrYVLL+I8UNtaXCr1R+OTi2t/fKfIAp/TNGmX+nIPv2tkG+Q/NauT4ctBGvh4dovQdTaw3b9/MsRAkcKqstcT+4We4es8MD4bSAriHq4cHu8Lb+xt3Xw71D+8KMYFPKOXetb3WL1D4xM3V5YeBg8LSzcnoq24yf2Jle/q1YDTG4gV5MWW61veEvVHx6Ijo+7LIzcUU1NjUfbEbAkV9itv1fljoVTod9Xn/t7V7lZVNnqfrT6aYHkmyxJ2yJFo23hqs/iinr3c5uqMDDZ+PzmqsZNHlcCWusb30qZK0IGT+1YHcvOVQMIfODJm6BG3b1eZthxWeQgqF1rrvF3YRZXX5iq1/Ff3EhuFpXdcJcvxRrsNUjbdKvBDFh/+MMfZN9/g6oi4WY0edXXX3/dA2R1Gp86as9YKAPW74kr6tmvLNnosusrVc5H6+gbB8vy8Ddfk8Lhbl6WPMDfbqBsmC33q7zTQFwNzQ998cXgfC0HNUSlV5xwmR+sPYYlvySlV+CPG2kraRU5E62uJSvAYLVnDVI5EhJY68z44qt59qUlRwjguJH+0kFssfaYVdJ2Tg1/hnm4J8gKMFgPaQ3Sz1rsAGvqDuPgulGc/3IRwBocHFxcHCRVcTK5OGRBAju80OKsVW5wlo4OLcqSg0J8a3Jx0m53kWjkYM3ik99+++2fQN1NVoDBWnv0sA1rkJpTLJybrxsrewAWdPts8fy8PAvE4A4GovR5mgFMe2WDrUhcaAcLl6GwQQUHB8eMolFehxMN/mQVWJmyUd6Dh3PYPk/LCyFYaJBO/VaQFZX5QLuRrACD1Z41SC2wvkCwvixOEkvF9cHB9LkJFuyUMYKtFIcGZ9kkh2SlOAY706KwBGsPNsZmB8fGoEC5Biw8Z6ycHJyG8ybRkLwQnr/I4Mn5oaFvBVrRaLRrE+wFGCz82kzrv49VDdb6HrI0y9Lp9B4bGkqYYBnERkYEGoTEyMFOIT2YAB4EWInBQaBmCJVIG+dgYIjAoiNGemjonQGGi7Bh5IbS78wL8fOn2V5iEktaZHVt6sZgg9WGL/pJsD4XYA2VV6CbE9jf6TSCBf3MEkNDAqw0/eGQ4H/8Q2XShiiI/0Er5VxynQmchkywDAQrDUWSxaFiEu2LC9H5ib0iWxkb+wvpu3FJVjeDtWuuM0prh9YsveCy1miVsrTUX9XB3R1uE7dpKVK+3Okuv8quy6/tOwHWVwAWTKYAh1mWGCMl2JgEC9nYewd/yisIydjY3jsoUF4fm2WLY2MmWMU0nYgF4GS+MWYe2jPkXjFdhDOmBYfcPhzOnU9O/kWSNT4iB8PWOqEFEmBdMnPRUb5gWjUdXiLbYWWfFs6yH91nO8LmDq4WUsIi3CIuULp1UnOpToH1+RdfYVgaKwMOk7niejK9BxvldOIdUsbBmsXdgoAEdpK0kyumYR4PG1hwpbyeSKfH9gqJlYIC1uTkJD9nL7myl4QDabY+RueuJ9b30D6AuLeyUsxNT09zrr6jxOs8ZLXWCS0QBwbX7pPo4BKPuIhVdn+HogkPNbgmEW3xlZAhLu3TqqQ7uMuXKt25YidZEbGsALhVuZI2LxEssExgHbIKLp61lcXDnQWL7mMBWN98M49v41bSY5PT0+vvzg+SQMPK+btEehY6nTAYW9w7z03D4zo+Bzt7s5O4l1lBMMbS83jGu/O9xcnpnJFLpmGXSoLAJG7N587P07O4kZ4mi+vvjL0E2ociaXwO9APq9ndmyOrCsVAuFbm7S93Mwdq6ojX88O9uBUINLWJ7gkzgLgaaEruCSFNhO3k4aC5ViqthYcSSC5WizEXYDsVSWpUdAusSV25DHkuVToMFaAmwvvkG59nAFXTuNGqS/62VOMz/JhKTi8W07bCtCD6CyWnr1OnJGrvTXLPz87Oz83fv3uVk0ccP3RiylOW4T0ywGF8vjR3uADscOTwGBXZOTgiQEruE8HXGTkpsRy5VyiNWiVZY4wuVovJ8tUhG/2HvhF0RWBV2eEZjYd55be62/fzLBha9fxubnBWanpaPlviuPEx/1susvDddfdRugP4SQMpxu1nS4uL8/Pw90J0fbt/+rnvHQgHWbgWX6ZNglUqHtHryllwKkoNVooX8LjlY+zSCXrIrc6lSfrAkotaumDqZYJ0gn7CH8Q0DGU27ggLWbwVY334LYE1OQveioJ/n8XF+VhHfsx1SNW8+IzeEJTjPjEnz/Oiieh4dmMeHu/f+Bbp3Z+42jYXdDFYWJkB5a/IuHhGsEjs54UtC7kOMgd38iQXWFq0oKpcqxbI79IxcqBR1IsCComecohIaOMPFchmOhS5Lc3cArK8RrG+//ctfpnkv827mG/Py/zynxNwlEVBcVmFBIJyeSCya+3Rkft6yqz6i7kO06hmwaKV2a/KugJW9pKVHt2iSVMkeVnBqlJVgHdIayGKpUtzL8zmWWKh0i6KaWJq7gmYQrB1MglHhJJ51fI4lyUKwvv6GuPoL0XD//n3zr0LYoqBrsRo6S8ozcPw+aX4e//OQtsjt0lF6ftEsdvfufQnWv3oBrGsqe+jylk5VqX4WiqzLytztBut3n+OHvn8isH6AufNd2c/0IDbowN15pMR84u5dK9jIg+JM6zzzRNBd0y4esZe7e0+Atbb26M7crVufKFg0yW+knUrdMnkX7tq4doMIWQTWn0yw7jmDde/e3bvz9KTkyioEf3EME+Kg8Ohzj59ItxFo655q2LQhT32EArCmPlGwduukBbup2rkoCIIF7+kJrD99B2D9cAeE/Y88WI/3BEgEh7kLUUeWuS8hMs8QMk9EsO7a7OGDNHhPnkVc3cZvpHX77YbAqb2rzWDIkmB9991tAuAOF/S9eOAbd+7QkyYncgcZ4dHpjv1MvHVgnWgatuxZBuWZcM6duTn8ZWW33yANntq8jFE//gju66+jgizQD03rzj2Tq+ZPtluam8N4NdW9t7E0WEIE1sBAFMgaF2Tdvj3XSLyYxcMdCk607VLWVEPDgqsuHQk1WFL0s11BFqIl4fIq4gGDlSNGzYqvMEBcdedIqMGS6jfJGhkZF2h5VD08pDyakmWnpqbGTa66FKzDYKoDYNFgyNexGEdNmeK9PlUlRyqqKLJKj5uqtlMrLDXS1VwF+QerbV6DVCFLLJEy3pRsLDmWkKudNLYlFkUZ6OIfU/xaLgd0FdL2rkHaJ8kSaDW5/o47RddfaqerudJrkCquEGQhWgNNrZXizsa1RXXo5h/ZA1jjeg1S4QsTLc6WRzWg49oKdzNXXbAGaRt90a+g1SxeFmH1OPFoWVkgrGvB6h+Ijgd2DdLxtqxBqnqD9NlnnzW7RFw9iq4rXpluXTIS1yAdCegapCNtWBSk2h2KPvOmemzYCjY2bEdKYOVtFXgvZWS51rlPVYDXIB2oy5U3j3vqFVvB/mtIxcIO0U3kSFV1QzwVasYRvqkL1yCt70xPamTMFzKuo5oV31unlqPV17i5HZFLbVvs7mt4vYnKu0pc1mN+gVp5KnSjVjalYqfvr7uq6NY5zRISMI+7yamynvjyCqHzM61qTqfxqSOXodCDO5vplrZ73E22qnhPa6HIS5napraoOYztBFOMRR0TCDhTVd+ZzTq8E9lsrHbVh8qJMY8UOh1vWUMD/LWZKac1SK/p/7oOd3yttxkts11YA7dUKbhKt1valKDlVgkwWEsLt6dGqm6Qqu537YBG7u6sx50lGmZWxGMCC6eUKXULqQWVl5f/DQowWGuPlqrTytW8rOu40noIlscdZXHVBFW+6Lctyq0SYLAc1iBtp/9b5XFH8fcL8uWiJMioo6r6eiokCyq74dZ8IhlgsGq/NmMGLIFVnQ6o621nh3cwm435gvGKlXvCDM/CRZta2M5gg1X1RT9bvPL2sr6W2p7NRgYs3i5RC7ccFqZqs6Y4F6pp31dtyK1irUEqV2yk9UKVnzjvePq5c3ZLrOtnO+j64/rastb1dt3Aso0XDf3fwOGBymajBCx4vUyur6+MKVkwvuSZCFBDi+75MsykKV9RbhW35CrThuqAlmXAEMsY4RJ8YnkYvvCatVJH3mXVDhsnlyW5PI2qkuuSIbVlLbDYvjtYvxX+/wPmvRm0ETM27YYY5b3hSUemg5nNRnnF/OEPuWJ6/YDNO2ZSwawZjqlTzNwWNblVqtu7yNqSW4WDdXh1eSi7GtcLzef3KahgHAOwshTBdmiZY740KWxmaUlSHulO2NWuiEJZa33lE2QVDvKTd8RqpmRFrJFER+SF8AJY4OqqXsSS7v8ix8zsR19+afNrtSw/23Ld1PDXsWw2ykgI8YoNQbsmJ3mAmhyslZWSQOZMmZQOqJtbZZoiHwdrcnG2tblV5FC4c6ksFVkqlXap7/kqamdXuMQoLqxc2RFLk0LpfXbJI90JLTsjVvXDlbYqYpi7RNusUmFkJU8rA9IipidK2R3zQkAnXkesxFYLljISAleD5XNJEvrIFKa3Ef1Rm82GUX6cWZEBx/R4p7PZqGB9Mc/GeK0GjfMiz5pCCQzOMyxNiTLS4DaD08OzFpwb5b0vRdKUmtwqCcpucA7eMIqUrYVybayUjeK7wdo8Bf6105xjXdmW46Y1SCVY0P0YZPL7l7TmLS5NesgucVlb4CtbYTs8YuEJtB7ppRhUxVqTJ3iaBKvC9ndLJ7Ls4SXQKS9UYpcnu1SBvBtY1kTki5XiGMMXaroIfkVHcie/Oz8vr58bmCLCIZuNzHWDhwOUzUZpGUz0zssH6UWMPcY7kTUFW5Muw59BSpTB22OCBS+ESTYrc2dU51YZLK7w/3sHPKcKT+KyMjR0v6W5VeSqyTtbTiv6SbBw2nOJq9Lm5eyoUimJhf1KAkJzLdKsnJfLRUzzClj4f1+WrUBoPDMvtFviF2oMFk7c99Jfnq/DyzoNDiTvc7DWwYvQH3vw3yGbDfYQPoUv4wBlszFbxm95rKQNdj7GM2CYyS74OvMJK9eFkRbpMqbT7+iFJMCqzq2SPh9KoBfKe3AAyhGbRWNlWs2t8ifffxorl4q8OlGW44b+xqBSOeODGAQnXMK2sn9lgZVnFVq2HRcbzeL4yOni65GecUsVG1hXYlXckxOxIC6WzUN0kxc6KfHxeJ8GZZeh8HciAdwgm/5y/VzwZM85YpgJRDCbjQnWkHhaODhI2WzsYOHEcQhprwMWJSbgBxfLeysJq0RNbpVJNr2XQ0PY7vQ0NzGdK7CczK0y3orcKiI8nVVwMFOGQlohtFQSs6MrWva/gutnC7CyNLcyz7ui9bZxWeUrvmapNcfiYO3Q4qUw5AJeYgK3dVjhZcWFTsRuHtc1rQcWun+FakkDwNBQNVhjtOOQzYZ6iRw8G6RsNnKORTdph4ZwGDxf52lVFtkkT3hBCQrUJCr4Fw5a7cYNp9wqe7kytHaoKLwAzqLDK8zMrTLegtwq17xBms0y5zVpVe3LOxjN6YrIdQWLZxY8x3d655nBIUoVgu5Oy5wj0uM8m80Q7yAufLpo7gUmm40NrPlyenFxrww8GcbKSiE3ZoE1OUktxWwqcKCYWMc8K+vlFZmUZUwkVzm35VZJsHcEUjmdWJfOMtaTB+fT05Mit4qynrxf7bwmWCXm4e7W1pnrzao62ufreLtHLHT/EIyEXw6uFxEH4e5qsJyy2fBcN+nk+vlYoLLZyNcMZYq6v2cYOeBq8vzdu3PKd5FZnJxMruPWIu7PHpxn+N8kNiB9vkdJWXgJK7fKnsitMplOTFK02zPeQflZysOCaVlw3Xlcyuv27RbkVrkmWDvud859kvvkHcGaXv/qK5iepyfBndPTi+kx4XlMZoNuxZ3p3HkuCUwp2WywhybhtWqIXgpKNhsrYvH0GDzvynlGSZoybSZFUZJZ2JKmWMdlbhUq0DC3yp2W5Fbpos8KVbBkdhLMIsH9K71f5X4reY2azcabx9uXzYZ/CK3m88GGnefUbCgia4otSUZ1LhZZgDvCJWmLmQqDcqv86949GbJ8jczdBVaN+8ek+yz/KXvqU9PVHndzeCey2Vgt+1wBy8qiIrNfcB5kPhVbyhSRBGOeis/Wya0yqyTduHtfpsD4ToMlwfoW894AJCLXzbzNgYtmOhLpylkrmw3PhzNf7fFOZrOxNY23DPmXWVQWzf8cHjWpipV9RSa58Jpb5b7SzO/MId+nFnURWDXe/3boL5Ozdn+ZyWys/CPz3ZDNxmza19/IhD4I1qKjBGtW9hV7Xoz6uVXma3KrPNJg8VnW5zLrDaVTko4znU7uvq92BJUQT1uhiR8NSjYb3jZsGaZdwfQY00TG/dpMKpiyQCbC4ClTrBwarrlVqlJgUMqMe7ydj+596mCpWW++4VlvVL+i0+7KjftWQpvuyGYjXjQ87QrlXZkX7cDOt8CCukGVRUvv35XJU+RrQeS3oDe1VblV7pkPPHfLv2RylZY0s00/Pr2O3L5BWpP1RkkucpfnrOEulQlEqrPZ3A1iNhv+ohHZMahpP4h0K3xYlllTKCPGHdlss/GmE9xyq8A55oM9t8rDO7db0MzzTuPjqrLDGqSW98Xrmq/bf7euGmSz+SEo2Wx+8xtcncUk6zbVE9OfEFd3LP1gpmOx5U6pyqHygy23itijh6rcKhiw/G9ml61BimCZ3v+uKuuNm2o8bjsuHd75bDYEVpiaZrXtB5GM54ZJVNw1d7sl94ERrIVHAV2DtObnX+j935jeHx/na/e3wt0dyWYjcxhYbaOqIPgNs6+4JldpnFvl1tS4/58V0hqkS486vdyoo2p/sFrt/e88Z71xSEPS2OPtzmbTz9sWtbXNrfr+iFZONLnys5n9AyNTwVyD1Okn9n22dEp/uk7Sm6Y83t5sNv1K2pURx7a5ZUkhNcqnUnsabSlJMPxsZn94YGR8KohrkN5yWhSk2vtNJb1pxuEdyWZjtc05o09tchSnp8wkBt5yqxBXA4IrH5vZLzspcHJcxsgMWY5Jbxp7sQmPj7Q9m02/jSxb4xrnSalNi+GxZFRJguFva1qyfqgfcmxof/+1k96MePa4JLvNWUdMsszG1dTd91evbGULXj5e1wRtuzx4v2XBNhptP1dm22Tjamrkv8x16dvZzIBK8X5zSW+6wOH9auMc6+S75OjwyXOlJL1pjac76nCrcddsnW0y4bVonQHieip3+pMbrV5R2YZmp2uj1Tuyvd0K7NdmPCrbQnW6bQ6Nq1OszXWrEWP8/lB/b4ClFRQxZrujrcHS8ke4zPWc9RmcBkvLH9Ey13Pj0bAGS8tPmctcV4FlrgpKy/ftOKxCmnVejxSX4dtpes1SrV6TWOZ6pAqs7JWyVGQJF8WqWoV0t5R3Xo8ULeSbXLNUq/dk/kjBDtZlRQGLiUU/IBhh/EFUspfsckdEI7lww+4+X2+Iw6SsWUrP7VPJ7H7H3wdrtUXOYJ1UTiywSgz/522r8SFufIsWI73K8vVH8xZY1gqAef7cFR6/Yq5Lcmv1lBzB2me7+xZYeXbJ8lVg8YiFW0jg2eUu8HV5iOuPOoJ1eLJfoe3KtZbI0uo+OYJVqpSuWIWv8AhglQCKKrCsP7Q+3w4ukXVFqys7gbVzxS4rYlvr05AjWGclG1h5VhJgnVUssCBKcYCu9q/YIa0/enmWVcCSa5bm+dqkGqxPSi6T9y11KOT/aAXbMwnWToXeLOLRCqvAAwyOrHKivCtU1izFwiWCT4P1qcgNLC2tG0mDpdUSabC0WiINllZLpMHSaok0WFot0fXBuvBT/ln0sW4+V8pXtwXaVoDAom9pB8ySv5Xy2W0+NtNvWzcHK+SXLi52d3ezWR8s+mfJ90r56TYfm9kCW0EC6+Rkf8efPvTLkv+V8hUs35rZClsBAussf7LbuG2j8Xg85oslMBXxo1JYo3jcmyVfwfLYzM7YChBYl2de2pZjjBl+WSo34MGTqRT9NLPBxYQlX8Hy1swO2eo6sArlxhHLk6UYM+IHCR8qBRFrlWXqG9JgBR4sVi43iDMeLaXYwcFBg7HQM+3FBgU0WEEHazSXWWX1u9EzWOVcg0HVq6kkW61fQIMVeLBCo6OhBhMaj5ZWWaqRJa+mDtho/QIarMCDlWCFVX8m76OskGwQ+7yaYuX6z4c0WIEHK5QpM8OXyXsoWWTF+pY8moo1GlFDGqzgg9VOS/5XSoOlwWpJpTRYGqyWVEqDpcFqSaU0WBqsllRKg9UMWLGGH+Z6r49sW4Q+2SW7kQZv3RpY4hqNm7ea4k5GnW/m20yRhVjM9azRUefjqiVnsGIR++m241VbznUzLwwy7UTi1R3j9pGFzdYotxHnbXLzPj9uq1dcteUDWEbRKCedrj2ac2lHw7ZBjQ2DGfy+Qrzxm/l6lkipslGUtaGbojH1w73Easj5GjZT7AD+lG0FbTupVB1rdcEysEuStT7M8E4FP2Zqu9cRLPCZweQHoMVMUSXJtZVVtlJFwyhnuJuSSTfv8+O2ejHV1s3Bihegm8r4+gB64/CXNjCKrRZi/HUeoVfRaBxfAfiSt/YjsRhuA/i1fmKiDDYBH8EmtWiUX0bdj43G42YUcvI4i4QixRhcBm/cR0RZij5Y4VxuNI4H4MmI7UVuB6sQCSUKBm8bb0gcai5e3bEIggXVcLbWGCwMDtRMPDsijFMbwY8YGeL2kOYMFvxPCH/FWBwN02l1W1kNFrRjtIxuwma6eT9u0DUisodjvoMVKa5iB8WKqWIsxDK5wsGBEcodZIqjuWIyUsgUkpFiqpAKJY2MEUkVM4WU2IenIvFyJlmEOOACFp0DTePnHmTKkQhsJSF4wCbfxwuEDGP1IBlazbh63MjEeQeC15iBF4Y6gqjaccOIM6wDdGAhVVBehHawVpOh3KpoGzUEqmgY1Gy0nUpBZXKFUUdrjcFKpeLlHLgOa2RgdzK0iW0EPxpxbKjtuxjOYMEwdpDj/kqyFJxG/qrfShewyMcp9D72lOJtlqOew8qKeoF9I+M3WKHI6kExFYKOTR5gZMB/QHGiGIc6reagjrFiAl4pxUT8YDWVAdT5fnkUugnDXTGeOHDyE9STzgEz9HiQGY1FkgfxBL6aoEm0TxcIGQnwZajgHrFCyVwxFxFg0YWNUahgMZZLQpTBg6FccrQYyqWgL93AgiEJe5zaRg3BvufNFmDFYkkWcrTmCaxCiM6EtkiwqI1x7MAkNNQ2WLoMhQWWiXB/kQHur/qtdBoKV7mPCSzqKcXbTPYck/WCwJYxfB8KcWApxsA55Gn+L2ekCggW0s9CiYMi8JyCWsI+HOX75Etw4GoO2u0MFp2DZvExkikUYikjRQ7C1wrtp3j7IOrFi64epy45WBVg8QvHi2BpVPQpVTKZCRm5VErpPjtYISOWw0iHbeMNoSvzZvOIlVtlztY8gSVoAotyk9pIYMkZXAOwwE5O+I2HPPJX/VZWg5WjybtoE28dtM3yNlMrS/WKFTMtAAtmiKPl0VwKmyTBYsBanMYweB5e6REGgSmUiFF/mPsGTQ0jrBhxi1h4DkYsOjceyqTAYGRVNFrsA1DouEwx4+rxCLy7iBhJCGxQTRaDCAe1gFFhNZJbhRcxp614EMOnY8qAUwVWBs/jbTPBgmZn8NVd5J0QE2BVW/MOVgYsGhAPRplsI49YBxB1vYAVghGT/MUDCvmrfisdhsKQChb1lOJtFicHioiF9YJTVn0HK7RaZEXsN8OImGBlCrlCYhTeWyDn+AfG+QIU4P0h9gsZ/t7i4MDRT2CIzsHuwkf6w8+lRpv7MeqZGIs5eEkoXmBQmUTROADvHvALJ7ECWO1QogwjWCgHEQ923edY+B6Fag9tM8GiZqeKBxjE4GyYiDhaqw8Wft1agoU1ApIKGSbbCH6EBkJDbbN3V7BiZeEqin7kr/qtbAQW9ZTibelA8wKjscJBruA7WDcWjoQ3v0c3Kr8C48mSt3sYjU0ZjX5FYbfkwW3wNiPp5T5N526Qevo6XADAyhSU+lzbIrwjsLesrqVEseF3Pr2Z8h+sOISGht8b9FQ37+pNsGz10R/ptL9ugf1IxxdpsDpWNw1Wuy1psK5vS4PV1kppsDRYLamUBkuD1ZJKabA0WC2plAZLg9WSSmmwNFgtqZQGS4PVkkppsDRYLamUBssrWD5KtC1QlvyulAZLg+W3KQ1WMwkEsrsnZ5d+ierji0X/LPldKQ2WZ7DyZ34pL/rw5hb9s+R3pTRYHrWzf+KfaBVnXyz6Z8nvSmmwPIasnV0flfXNon+WfK6UBssrWX7KP4s+1s3nSmmwtFqloMLQcrC0WiufOjDQtrhsYJU74OpPS0GFocVg9YdHppbWfvmPVqvkUween7/79b9BtSWa+sva0pQFVnRq4dHaL1qtkocObLzmGHXgf71A2jCDlEdbcpGg+j9OE7ZEU9ceLUxFBVh94ej43NKjNa1WqTEMBRhGGub5OTd+/U9jWxGwVW647LgXWzmWwrwLjDmuhlZlS+jR0ty4CVb/wMjU3MLCQ60WqSEMcVZINE7HYvz637VHDW2tslyM1oy7oa2YwQCsCCuPluv+YlXYEk1dmJsaGeiXYIUHRsanbmm1So2jTLl8wKqXl6npwF9//eXhXENbKZaJNE7t0thWqmhAleLAu8Hqja3Clmjq1PjIQFiChWQNREe0WqXGYBnlovPym7YO/O/awnhDW6PlctEDWA1tjQKiHsFCW6Kp0ShwZYLV198f1mqdvEWZBgl6Li7++5+1W9HG87VYKu6PLQQrRmDVm7IJW1ZrFa4ILa2WqSEMSUxF1TCB1H9/eTQ14GHyXkyxBsvXeLOFYIXKLFkfU2HLbGyfVtvUOMrkmIcEUtCB442jX2i1zBon/PRii8CKFVmx7u0LYavTPv4k5dONSI9gdcZWp338SSqoMLQYLP1ZYasV1M/3fP+ssGybY3XC1Z+WggqD/x9C294V6u9jtVpB/Q6V/9/Hst3H0mC1WkGFwX+wbHfeNVitVlBh8B+sJfWzQg1WqxVUGPwHy/btBg1WqxVUGPwHy/Z9LA1WqxVUGFryYwrrG6QarFYrqDB05Odf+/vZ2oPZ/V3Hba26CioMHQBrt8IYO6k5vM9KjttadRVUGDoA1iW7umQV3NrlkSu7v78lo9QORTMNlmcFFYaOgFXJE0lXPHKdwENll8N0ids7GizvCioMHQArm4ex8AohOslW2M4Oq2RPLg85TPv5/UuW12B5V00HRuLxuMhYb/22Km7+aQ4GNKb+eKzWRKT6q142W6PxuEigzjOgO1+eH4+pX/SKq7awnR7Ayud3s4ztb5X4f4Qou7slI9ZVSYPVjGpgiJcNo0jZ9ZLWN92NUGI15P5THVew0FihLAB1NFGTrNFmi3JCi9ThyaRbYkd+PKNid51EmCVWgUFwZyvPLg8rlWy2Ujm8ZGcE0z6r7F9psJpRLVjYS8VYbDQOESseiUfgHzzmcqNxjAxwMFLzA1Z3sNBYJgWnxEJkIkRnR2K4Rb83bQCWyGKPJ42OYlk6McYjKMYyqp2BRzFi4SG81rXA2oWJVOUQNs4q7ApC1SFgdpnlMAF0ZwIyLU9yA8swVjFxcyZXODgwQmzUMOIsVI6ECrFYIVWoGpPcwSrE44lCMlZMGRluAjaLsXg5d4D5ilPFhDewDjLlCKXuTRYyhUgKdyOwlQyxHOxzc0YcDyXoWn6m7tW6lpyHwoOQkaBM5RH6FxJpy3PJ0WIol4qnDryCVTaK5VUMNhmDmzhIhpIH8QKltYYQlPIwFK5iHUROaBhWc6sHmdFYZDVHyOE+N2fEk3Aoya+lweq0asEq0OTdiHMQ+D8BVuIgmQkZuVQqWQcGmzHAxkhCmMpIsMBu3ODZwZPF1EEjsHI0ebeSjTOMYhHMM47BjPF9mWycUpPza2mwOi3nodAFrFDxIAYRKxSrWsuhLlijxVE4eVWABWcDLTLtfEOwqrPYF+MAaioO87akEYoXQwz2E9Jc8iCUzPFrabA6La9gJcpJ2MoV8afRhvc5FhpbNWKFg1yBm4CzjYiIWDB9yzQJVqxQyMAfsBHCsAWzL9g3OYVDo/xaGqxOK6g3NT3aakMWe61rSYOl1RLV70Bxy9t+sPYGuCcYfLTl0ZQGq4OqDwNNgJJJ+x3z2hvgnsDy0ZZHUxqsDsqpA/HG9uhoLIahge7Axxjehqcb7043y+vB4KOtpk1psDoohw6kG9spfmM7RHfgkywF78/ibjfL68Dgo63mTWmwOigHGOjGdorf2JZ34EO8B51vltcBy0dbzZvSYHVQDjDYbmzL+1kiNDjeLK8Dlo+2mjelweqgnIYvvLGdMkLxgtqDmVDScLlZXm8o9M9W86Y0WB2U0yQZb2ynCnh/XfZgoTBaNHKGy83yehNu/2w1b0qD1UG5va1PNVgo2SNYfttqypQGq4PSYGm1RPVvalbfzXb51rmnG6Q+2vJoSoPVQdWHIZax77t869wTWD7a8mhKg9VBOXUgfWs8zr+cbn7tXd7djjgkRqoDg4+2mjalweqgnN7J8W+N441u/M6m+Nq7uLsdKaYKNfOcOu8K/bPVvCkNVgflAIP41jh+zzxumF97F3e3Y8VEM99I8NFW86Y0WB2UY5QR3xrnPSi+RCrvbicOihmXDmytreZNabA6KKe75fJb47YeFHe3R3OhSM236+rceffPVvOmNFgdlOPdcvGtcXtoEHe3M4VCTS6wenfefbPVvCkNVgfV5V9N9mQL26nBarOCCoMGq8sVVBg0WF2uoMKgwepyBRUGDVaXK6gwaLC6XEGFQYPV5QoqDBqsLteFPxIwBNMWtlOD1Wb52YFBtYXt1GC1W9ndk7PLm4s6MKi2tjRY7Rd0YP7s5soLGAJpa0uD1QHt7J/4of2dbHBtabA6oOzOri/KBtiWBqsTyvqjQNvSYGm1RhosrZZIg6XVEtWApaXlj2xglTtdG62ekQ2s/vDI1NLaL//R0rqx1Cz2/eHo1MKjtV+0tG6stUcLU1EBVl84Oj639GhNS+vGerQ0N26C1T8wMjW3sPBQS+umWpibGhnol2CFB0bGp25pad1YU+MjA2EJFpI1EB3R0rqxolHgygSrr78/rKXljxSuCC0tLT/Up6WlpaWlpaWlpaWlpaWlpeW//g8UnHES7wVZFQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" name="Levels" align="bottom" width="600" height="350" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font color="#993366"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>L<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkCR_10" align="right" hspace="5" width="66" height="27" border="0">evels
|
||
of biological organization.</b></font></font> The levels of
|
||
biological organization involve a series of levels of part-whole
|
||
complexity of the basic kind sketched above, that is, levels of
|
||
part-whole complexity in primary structures. In each case, the
|
||
organisms that evolve at one stage of evolution are the structural
|
||
causes that are bundled together as a higher level organism that
|
||
begins the next stage, and what evolves at the higher level is a
|
||
mechanism that coordinates their behavior, including their
|
||
reproduction. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Proto-organismic
|
||
level: RNA molecules.</font> The “organisms” on the lowest level
|
||
of biological organization are RNA molecules. The structural causes
|
||
bundled together in them are (or at least include) the triplets of
|
||
four different kinds of nucleotides that have become the so-called
|
||
genetic code. Such parts are organized (bonded by a sugar and
|
||
phosphate backbone) as an RNA molecule, and that chain of links is
|
||
all that “coordinates” the behavior of these simplest organisms
|
||
to generate both the reproductive and non-reproductive work that is
|
||
required to go through reproductive cycles. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The RNA
|
||
molecule can reproduce as a whole by a two stage process in which
|
||
each nucleotide attracts a complementary nucleotide so that the
|
||
complements become bound as parts of a second RNA molecule, and then
|
||
the same process occurring in the second RNA molecules results in an
|
||
RNA molecule like the original. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
distinctive structural global regularity that each such unit of the
|
||
genetic code generates (that is, its non-reproductive work) is to
|
||
help prescribe which kind of amino acid would be added to the protein
|
||
molecule being synthesized (by a peptide bond linking them all in a
|
||
chain of amino acids). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
RNA molecules satisfy our definition of the kind of material
|
||
structure that goes through reproductive cycles, that is, a primary
|
||
structure, it is something of a stretch to think of them as
|
||
organisms. But as we shall see, there is indeed a way, in a
|
||
spatiomaterial world like ours, in which RNA molecules would
|
||
inevitably go through regular cycles in which they generate both
|
||
kinds of structural global regularities (reproduction and the
|
||
non-reproductive work of directing the synthesis of proteins). They
|
||
start out simple, uniform and weak, but gradual evolution by
|
||
reproductive causation would make them complex, diverse and powerful.
|
||
The most important power that would evolve during the first stage
|
||
would be a reliable and efficient way of synthesizing protein
|
||
molecules (the molecular machines by which traits in all living
|
||
organisms are generated).</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Prokaryotic
|
||
level: DNA molecules.</font> The minimal organisms at the second
|
||
level of biological organization are DNA molecules. The structural
|
||
causes bundled together in them as a higher level “organism” are
|
||
the organisms (or primary structures) from the lower level, and once
|
||
again, being linked together as parts of the same macromolecule is
|
||
all that coordinates their behavior at first. Instead of being made
|
||
up of RNA molecules, DNA molecules are made up of variants on them,
|
||
called genes (with a substitution for one of the four kinds of
|
||
nucleotides used in RNA and a slightly different sugar and phosphate
|
||
backbone). Each DNA molecule is actually two strands of complementary
|
||
nucleotides that are most stable when attached to one another,
|
||
forming the now famous “double helix” structure. But they have
|
||
both kinds of structural effects that are essential to primary
|
||
structures, reproduction and non-reproductive work of various kinds. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">DNA
|
||
molecules can reproduce as a whole in much the same way as RNA
|
||
molecules (though the two complementary strands must unzip and
|
||
reproduction requires the assistance of a certain protein molecule). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
structural causes bundled together in them are called “genes,”
|
||
and each gene does its non-reproductive work in much the same way as
|
||
the RNA molecule as a whole. But since the RNA structures are
|
||
contained as segments of a DNA molecule, each segment must first be
|
||
transcribed as a messenger-RNA molecule (mRNA) and only then can it
|
||
use the highly reliable process inherited from the first stage of
|
||
evolution (requiring the use of ribosomes and transfer-RNA) to
|
||
synthesize a certain kind of protein. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
at first the behavior of these RNA level organisms is coordinated
|
||
merely by being parts of a single DNA molecule, new mechanisms of
|
||
coordination are added with the evolution of proteins that are able
|
||
to repress, promote and de-repress the transcription of specific mRNA
|
||
from specific segments. As products of a radical random variation,
|
||
DNA molecules would have to start out simple, uniform and weak. But
|
||
since there is, as we shall see, a way in which DNA molecules would
|
||
inevitably go through entire reproductive cycles, their population
|
||
growth would eventually make resources scarce and natural selection
|
||
would be imposed. As they became complex, diverse and powerful, DNA
|
||
molecules would eventually surround themselves by cell walls,
|
||
controlling the behavior of their lower level organisms more
|
||
completely, and eventually, as we shall see, there would come a point
|
||
at which it would be obvious that life had begun. Extant remnants of
|
||
this stage are prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, cyanobacteria and
|
||
archeabacteria. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Eukaryotic
|
||
level: the nucleus.</font> The minimal organisms at the third level
|
||
of biological organization are cells with a nucleus, for the
|
||
structural causes that are bundled together in them are organisms
|
||
from the next lower level or their equivalent (that is, DNA level
|
||
primary structures). Indeed, lower level organisms are bundled
|
||
together in two ways, first, as multiple chromosomes in the nucleus,
|
||
and second, in most kinds of nucleated cells, as organelles in their
|
||
cytoplasm, either both mitochondria and chloroplasts (in plant-like
|
||
cells) or just mitochondria (in animal-like cells). Though the
|
||
organelles are basically just stripped down prokaryotic cells whose
|
||
behavior is controlled by the eukaryotic cell, the nucleus is a new
|
||
mechanism for coordinating the behavior of the DNA molecules in
|
||
chromosomes (that is, a new biological behavior guidance system), and
|
||
it generates both kinds of behavior that are essential for a
|
||
reproductive cycle. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Mitochondria
|
||
and chloroplasts reproduce themselves in the cytoplasm, but the
|
||
chromosomes are reproduced in an elaborate process including the
|
||
entire nucleus, though in both cases it basically is just a form of
|
||
DNA reproduction from the previous level. We will consider how such a
|
||
complex mechanism as the nucleus could evolve from prokaryotes. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The nucleus
|
||
is a mechanism for coordinating the expression of genes on a number
|
||
of different chromosomes at once, and thus, the cell does
|
||
non-reproductive work by marshaling an army of non-reproductive
|
||
structural effects of many lower level organisms (each transcribing
|
||
various mRNA molecules which then guide the synthesis of proteins).
|
||
And under the direction of the cell, the self-reproducing organelles
|
||
generate non-reproductive secondary effects in the same way as
|
||
prokaryotes. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Since
|
||
eukaryotes come to exist as a radical random variation on prokaryotes
|
||
late in their stage of gradual evolution, eukaryotes start out
|
||
simple, uniform and weak. But as they impose natural selection on
|
||
themselves by their own reproduction, they become complex, diverse
|
||
and powerful. Perhaps the most significant contribution to subsequent
|
||
evolution is the evolution of a process of sexually mixing
|
||
chromosomes during reproduction. The speed of evolutionary change is
|
||
accelerated by routinely shuffling lower level primary structures, if
|
||
only because that makes it possible to combine in a single organism
|
||
new powers for controlling relevant conditions that were acquired by
|
||
different organisms in previous generations. But the evolution of
|
||
sexual reproduction also makes the death of individual organisms
|
||
inevitable. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Multicellular
|
||
level: the mechanism of embryological development.</font> The
|
||
organisms at the next level of biological organization are so
|
||
obviously made up of organisms from the previous level that it has
|
||
given them their name. No one doubts that multicellular organisms
|
||
evolved from single-celled eukaryotes, called “<i>protists,</i>”
|
||
though multicellular organization is basically different in plants
|
||
and animals and it evolved many times in plants. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Reproduction
|
||
in this case usually comes, however, not from all the parts
|
||
reproducing as parts of the whole (though such asexual reproduction
|
||
is possible in multicellular plants and many simpler multicellular
|
||
animals), but by sexual reproduction of egg cells followed by their
|
||
asexual reproduction. The behavior of the daughter cells can be
|
||
coordinated by their exchanging messenger molecules (hormones),
|
||
though in animals, it also involves a mechanism of embryological
|
||
development that determines daughter cells so that they also move
|
||
around relative to one another in order to set up the structure of
|
||
the animal body. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Multicellular
|
||
organisms do the non-reproductive work of controlling relevant
|
||
conditions by coordinating the non-reproductive structural effects of
|
||
its member cells. Such coordination also depends on the exchange of
|
||
messenger molecules, though in multicellular animals, there is a
|
||
special organ of cells, the nervous system, for coordinating the
|
||
cells involved in generating behavior directed at other objects in
|
||
space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Originating
|
||
as radical random variations, multicellular organisms start off
|
||
simple, uniform and weak, and we have seen how gradual evolution
|
||
would make them complex, diverse and powerful. The most spectacular
|
||
product at this level of biological organization is animals with all
|
||
of the levels of neurological organization mentioned below, for that
|
||
makes a new kind of animal possible at the social level of biological
|
||
organization. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Social
|
||
organisms: language.</font> The most obvious way in which there is a
|
||
higher level of part-whole complexity than multicellular organisms in
|
||
the biological series are insect colonies. But there are other
|
||
examples of colonial animals, such as hydrozoa and blind mole rats,
|
||
not to mention plants, such as aspen trees, in which whole groves
|
||
reproduce like multicellular plants. Insect colonies are, as we shall
|
||
see, an anomalous kind of animal, because they use the same mechanism
|
||
to coordinate the behavior of multicellular animals as parts of a
|
||
social level organism that multicellular animals use to coordinate
|
||
their cells. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">That is,
|
||
insect colonies reproduce as a whole, with a queen having offspring
|
||
that population the whole colony, and the behavior of different
|
||
members of the colony is controlled by the exchange messenger
|
||
molecules called “pheromones.” </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">But
|
||
colonial animals are not the only kinds of organisms on the “social”
|
||
level of biological organization. Another and more distinctive
|
||
example is human society, and its way of coordinating multicellular
|
||
animals is language, which depends on the prior evolution of all the
|
||
levels of neurological organization. The spiritual animal is, as we
|
||
shall see, a unique level of organization. Among other things, the
|
||
same, language-based behavior guidance system is both a social level
|
||
biological behavior guidance system and the new kind of animal
|
||
behavior guidance system that is made possible by the social level of
|
||
biological organization. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font color="#993366"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>L<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkCR_11" align="right" hspace="5" width="77" height="26" border="0">evels
|
||
of neurological organization.</b></font></font> The other way that
|
||
multicellular animals lead to a further series of evolutionary stages
|
||
is less radical, because it does not involve levels of part-whole
|
||
complexity in primary structures, that is, in complex material
|
||
structures that reproduce themselves like organisms. Instead, the
|
||
structural causes that are bundled together as material structures at
|
||
a series of levels of part-whole complexity occur <i>within the
|
||
structure of a single organ</i> of multicellular animals, the nervous
|
||
system, whose function is to guide animal behavior. The elementary
|
||
structural causes in this case are neurons, and they behave by
|
||
“firing” (that is, sending an action potential along its long
|
||
axon to other neurons affecting whether they fire). The higher levels
|
||
of part-whole complexity are mechanisms made of many neurons,
|
||
mechanisms made of many such mechanism, etc. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
levels of neurological organization are basically different from
|
||
levels of biological organization, because it is not necessary for
|
||
the new level of organization to coordinate the behavior of its own
|
||
parts, and certainly not to coordinate their reproduction. That would
|
||
be required, if it were a biological behavior guidance system. But in
|
||
this case, the higher level structures is an animal behavior guidance
|
||
system. What coordinates the behavior of neurons in setting up the
|
||
nervous system is the mechanism of embryological development, and
|
||
though neurons do reproduce in that process, the higher level
|
||
neuronal structures do not. Since the structure of the nervous system
|
||
is provided for it, the animal behavior guidance system can use that
|
||
structure as an ontological cause, that is, as a machine, to guide
|
||
the behavior of the whole animal in acting on other objects in space.
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Behavior
|
||
guidance depends on another kind of behavior distinctive of neurons,
|
||
namely, “firing” (that is, sending an action potential along its
|
||
long axon to other neurons affecting whether they fire). Neurons are
|
||
organized into higher levels of part-whole complexity when the
|
||
firings of certain neurons in entire groups affects the firings of
|
||
other groups of neurons, or systems of such groups affect other such
|
||
systems, etc. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is not necessary for the relevant material structures at each level
|
||
of neurological organization to go through reproductive cycles on
|
||
their own in order to become naturally perfect in the sense of doing
|
||
the most with the least like perfectly efficient machines, because
|
||
their gradual evolution in the direction of maximum holistic power is
|
||
the effect of reproductive causation on the multicellular animals of
|
||
which they are part. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Whatever
|
||
their level of neurological organization, such material structures
|
||
serve specific functions in guiding animal behavior and, at each
|
||
level of neurological organization, the material structures are
|
||
shaped to be as powerful as possible in controlling some relevant
|
||
condition with the fewest and simplest neurons. If, therefore, a
|
||
series of levels of part-whole complexity were possible in the
|
||
nervous system, it would generate another series of evolutionary
|
||
stages during the stage at which multicellular organisms evolve.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
series of levels of neurological organization are divided into two
|
||
distinct series, because after a certain point in the evolution of
|
||
the brain, higher levels of neurological organization depend on a
|
||
higher level of biological organization as well, that is, the
|
||
evolution of a new kind of animal at the social level. I will,
|
||
therefore, list the two series of levels of neurological organization
|
||
separately. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font color="#993366"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>A<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkCR_12" align="right" hspace="5" width="57" height="26" border="0">nimal
|
||
levels of neurological organization.</b></font></font> The first
|
||
series of evolutionary stages caused by levels of neurological
|
||
organization occurs in multicellular animals whose evolution depends
|
||
only on natural selection at the level of individual animals. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Somatosensory
|
||
animals.</font> Somatosensory animals are the simplest multicellular
|
||
animals, including hydra and sea stars, which interact with other
|
||
object in space only by contact. In the, <i>single neurons </i>(and
|
||
their firings) serve the three basic subfunctions in guiding animal
|
||
behavior: (1) registering sensory input, (2) selecting how to behave,
|
||
and (3) generating motor output. Such nervous systems are not
|
||
centralized.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Telesensory
|
||
animals. </font>Telesensory animals are the simplest animals that can
|
||
sense objects at a distance from their bodies, and in them, <i>systems
|
||
of neurons </i>(at least ganglia or two dimensional arrays of neurons
|
||
in the neural tubes of vertebrates ) serve the three basic
|
||
subfunctions in guiding animal behavior. The eye’s retina, for
|
||
example, requires many neurons working together to generate an image
|
||
of objects at a distance, and locomotion in relation to a distant
|
||
object requires a system of many neurons to send motor commands
|
||
simultaneously to all parts of the body. Such centralized nervous
|
||
systems are found in all the vertebrates mentioned above, from fish
|
||
to birds, as well as most kinds of invertebrate animals, such as
|
||
worms, mollusks, insects. “Telesensory animals,” as I will call
|
||
them, see the whole world around them as the object on which their
|
||
behavior might act. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Subjective
|
||
animals.</font> Subjective animals are animals with spatial
|
||
imagination, namely, mammals. In them complete <i>circuits of systems
|
||
of neurons</i> serve each of the basic subfunctions in guiding animal
|
||
behavior (registering sensory input, selecting how to behave, and
|
||
generating behavior). The distinctive mammalian neocortex marks the
|
||
shift of behavior guidance responsibilities from the midbrain and
|
||
hindbrain to nervous mechanisms in the vertebrate forebrain, and as
|
||
we shall see, by using one <i>circuit of systems of neurons </i>to
|
||
register sensory input (as the “local image”) and another such
|
||
circuit to generate bodily behavior, including locomotion (as the
|
||
“body image”), mammals have evolved a faculty of <i>spatial
|
||
imagination </i>that enables them to think coherently about how
|
||
locomotion (and motion) affect the relations of objects in space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Motor
|
||
commands can be generated in the “body image” with their effects
|
||
on the actual body suspended. Such “covert locomotion” calls up
|
||
memory images of what was previously perceived in the same situations
|
||
in the “local image,” and so the mammal is able to <i>imagine</i>
|
||
how certain kinds of locomotion would change the spatial relations of
|
||
objects in space before acting overtly. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Spatial
|
||
imagination makes both their own body and other objects in space
|
||
appear to them as a natural world, and thus, such animals will be
|
||
called “subjective animals.” Since they have a conception of
|
||
space, they see the object as located in space and they can
|
||
understand the effects of motion on spatial relations. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Manipulative
|
||
animals.</font> The best, if not only, example of manipulative
|
||
animals are higher primates. A yet higher level of part-whole
|
||
complexity in neural mechanisms gives them a faculty of <i>structural
|
||
imagination </i>for thinking about the geometrical structures of
|
||
objects in space and how they change as a result of manipulation. In
|
||
addition to the interaction of the “body image” and “local
|
||
image” circuits that gives mammals generally spatial imagination,
|
||
each hand must have a comparable system in which a “hand image”
|
||
interacts with an “object image” to represent the effects of
|
||
manipulation on the object. Structural imagination is contained
|
||
within spatial imagination so that the object being handled is seen
|
||
as located in the subjective animal’s conception of space. With
|
||
four hands and a body, there are five sets of interacting circuits in
|
||
the primate brains, giving what I will call “manipulative animals”
|
||
a yet higher level of neurological organization than subjective
|
||
animals. They see the object in space as having a geometrical
|
||
structure. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font color="#993366"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>S<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkCR_13" align="right" hspace="5" width="57" height="26" border="0">piritual
|
||
levels of neurological organization.</b></font></font> The series of
|
||
levels of neurological organization in multicellular animals
|
||
continues in animals that become parts “spiritual animals.”
|
||
Multicellular animals are the lower level organisms that get bundled
|
||
together as parts of a higher level organism that goes through
|
||
reproductive cycles as a whole, on the social level of biological
|
||
organization. But spiritual animals are radically different from
|
||
insect colonies, the other social level animals mentioned above,
|
||
because instead of using the mechanism of embryological development
|
||
(the biological behavior guidance system from the multicellular
|
||
level) to coordinate the behavior of the constituent multicellular
|
||
level organisms, the spiritual animal uses a basically new mechanism,
|
||
namely, language. The use of language serves both as a biological
|
||
behavior guidance system (coordinating the behavior of lower level
|
||
organisms as parts of a higher level organism that goes through
|
||
reproductive cycles as a whole) and as an animal behavior guidance
|
||
system (guiding its behavior like an animal at the social level of
|
||
biological organization). That makes this social level animal unique,
|
||
and since it has no body except the independently moving bodies of
|
||
its biological parts, it is aptly called a “spiritual animal.” </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
use of language requires, however, a level of neurological
|
||
organization higher than that of primates. Because of that function,
|
||
the levels of neurological organization are evident in levels of
|
||
part-whole complexity in the structures of the linguistic
|
||
representations they use to coordinate behavior. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Primitive
|
||
spiritual animals.</font> Linguistic representations at the level of
|
||
“<i>natural sentences</i>,” with a simple subject-predicate
|
||
grammar, make it possible to coordinate behavior in nomadic groups of
|
||
primates, called “hominids.” </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">A higher
|
||
level of neurological organization is required for the capacity to
|
||
generate and understand natural sentences, because not only must
|
||
covert manipulative behavior be able to combine multiple <i>object
|
||
images </i>as representations of states of objects in space, but the
|
||
animal must also be able to generate (and understand) verbal behavior
|
||
that indicates the kinds of covert behavior involved in constructing
|
||
the natural representation. That is, linguistic behavior has both a
|
||
verbal and a nonverbal side.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Such a
|
||
brain mechanism can serve as a spiritual behavior guidance system,
|
||
because when a leader assigns different tasks to different members in
|
||
a public process, not only does each member know what he is supposed
|
||
to do in a plan of group action, but all the members know what
|
||
everyone is supposed to do. The same plan of group action is then
|
||
contained in each of the brains of the members. That is how their
|
||
behavior can be coordinated in attaining a single goal. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
spiritual animal has both kinds of structural effects required to go
|
||
through reproductive cycles as a whole on the social level. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
spiritual animal behaves like a manipulative animal at the social
|
||
level, that is, with each member acting like a distinct hand in
|
||
concert with the others as part of a common plan for acting on
|
||
objects in space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But such
|
||
spiritual animals can also reproduce as a whole, because the members
|
||
can all reproduce sexually at the individual level and, when its
|
||
population becomes too large, the nomadic band can divide into groups
|
||
that go different ways. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Thus,
|
||
spiritual animals multiply in space, make resources scarce, and
|
||
thereby impose natural selection on themselves, so that they evolve
|
||
by reproductive causation toward natural perfection of organisms of
|
||
their kind.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Rational
|
||
spiritual animals.</font> Linguistic representations at the level of
|
||
“psychological sentences” make subjective animals reflective, and
|
||
that gives spiritual animals and their members the power of reason. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Psychological
|
||
sentences take words referring to subjective animals (or spiritual
|
||
animals) as their grammatical subjects and predicate of them verbs of
|
||
propositional attitude, such as “perceive,” “believe,”
|
||
“desire,” and “intend,” followed by a sentence indicating the
|
||
proposition to which the attitude is taken. Psychological sentences
|
||
are able to represent the causes of behavior (and beliefs) in
|
||
subjective animals, and the use psychological sentence makes
|
||
linguistic animals reflective, because it enables them to use the
|
||
functioning of their own brains to imagine the behavior guidance
|
||
processes going on in other brains. They are eventually able to use
|
||
psychological sentences to represent the causes of their own behavior
|
||
(and beliefs) as causes in the very process of causing that behavior
|
||
(or belief), and since that affords a new, reflective level of
|
||
control over brain processes and the behavior it generates, the
|
||
causes come to be called “reasons.” Thus, the use of
|
||
psychological sentences eventually leads to reason.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">At
|
||
this level of linguistic (that is, neurological) organization, not
|
||
only is language used by a leader to assign tasks, but the linguistic
|
||
representations exchanged among members of the spiritual animal have
|
||
the structure of arguments, that is, conclusions about what to do (or
|
||
believe) together with a reason for them. Thus, in addition to making
|
||
both the individual and the spiritual animal more powerful, the use
|
||
of psychological sentences is the foundation for a new form of
|
||
evolution by reproductive causation to take place, namely, cultural
|
||
evolution. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In this
|
||
case, the “organisms” are arguments (with the component sentences
|
||
serving as the structural causes bundled together in them). The
|
||
non-reproductive structural effect of argument is to guide behavior
|
||
(or beliefs). Arguments reproduce when one member convinces another
|
||
to accept it. Arguments impose natural selection on themselves
|
||
because the brains into which they can reproduce are finite. And
|
||
which arguments succeed in reproducing is not just chance, because
|
||
individuals can judge which among competing arguments is most
|
||
coherent, given everything they know. Hence, arguments are subject to
|
||
rational selection and tend to evolve.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Thus,
|
||
at the rational spiritual level of neurological organization, there
|
||
is an evolution of the arguments accumulated as the cultures of
|
||
spiritual animals, and as we shall see, it is change in the direction
|
||
of natural perfection for arguments (or reason). Arguments have
|
||
maximum holistic power for “organisms” of their kind when they
|
||
discover the true and the good. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Philosophical
|
||
spiritual animals.</font> Linguistic representations at the level of
|
||
philosophical arguments lead to a step-like increase in the power of
|
||
reason to discover the true and the good. Philosophical arguments are
|
||
a higher level of part-whole complexity in linguistic
|
||
representations, because philosophy uses a foundation to defend more
|
||
fundamental truths about the world. In one way or another,
|
||
philosophical arguments try to explain why the other arguments that
|
||
have accumulated in the culture of rational spiritual animals are
|
||
valid, ands that gives philosophy a higher level of forensic
|
||
organization. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are,
|
||
as we have seen, two, basically different ways of making such a
|
||
higher level argument, epistemological philosophy and ontological
|
||
philosophy. Epistemological philosophy uses a theory about the nature
|
||
of reason that comes from reflecting on how rational beings like us
|
||
know to prove that certain ordinary conclusions about the true and
|
||
the good are correct (or false). Ontological philosophy uses an
|
||
empirically justified ontological explanation of the world as its
|
||
foundation for explaining the validity of the ordinary arguments of
|
||
the rational spiritual level. (Though that leads to an explanation of
|
||
the nature of reason, its explanation of the nature of reason is not
|
||
the foundation of ontological philosophy, but just one of its
|
||
implications.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
simplest and most natural way to construct such a higher level
|
||
argument is the ontological approach, but it cannot succeed until
|
||
natural science has evolved. Thus, the first approach to philosophy
|
||
to prosper for long is the epistemological approach, and though it
|
||
inevitably fails on its own (mainly because of how realism leads to
|
||
ontological dualism and dualism leads skepticism), it gives rise to
|
||
natural science, eventually making it possible for ontological
|
||
philosophy to succeed. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are,
|
||
therefore, two phases in the evolution of philosophical spiritual
|
||
animals. They do not reach the maximum holistic power for “organisms”
|
||
of their kind until ontological philosophy succeeds in making the
|
||
fullest use of this level of neurological organization.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
philosophical arguments do not require any change in the brain
|
||
structures set up by the mechanism of embryological development, they
|
||
do involve the acquisition of a higher level of neurological
|
||
organization in the individual brain. But it comes from process of
|
||
learning language and the arguments that have been accumulated as
|
||
culture. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">However,
|
||
there is yet another kind of series of stages in the evolution of
|
||
spiritual animal, because there are levels of part-whole complexity
|
||
in the social structures (as opposed to cultural structures) of
|
||
spiritual animals. Among them there is, in addition to cultural
|
||
evolution, another form of reproductive causation at work on
|
||
“organisms” constituted by evolved structures (including the
|
||
evolution of class structure and eventually capitalism, which is a
|
||
third form of reproductive causation that takes place on the social
|
||
level). The combination of these various stages of evolution entail a
|
||
philosophy of history in the 19th Century style. But I will leave
|
||
those evolutionary stages and their complications for the next
|
||
section, when we trace the course of evolution through all of its
|
||
stages in detail, from its beginning through the history that still
|
||
lies in the future.</span></font></font></font></p>
|
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