727 lines
78 KiB
HTML
727 lines
78 KiB
HTML
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<html>
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<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
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<title>Animals</title>
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<meta name="generator" content="LibreOffice 4.2.8.2 (Linux)">
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<meta name="author" content="Amr Gharbeia">
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</head>
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<body lang="en-GB" text="#99ccff" dir="ltr">
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font color="#993366"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>A<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADYAAAAUCAMAAADx/z7SAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpGPjA4MSYqJR0cGBMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAC/HyWNAAAAq0lEQVR4nNWTzQ7DIAiAEajFIGzv/7RDXWLaelkPS0o88PeBosL7lsBtDH6WZ2FI04npkkd5jVmduYwXjGWJoeaoR2oe8UxApfquzSAzx45FMJ+wQmBRUwEcQBi4QPJuBCjSsHBBOmEvZqNe0wY2tFibF5XRzZWO2FZFSllilnqrfja2I1bbEHyJSRUbm6yi+xGjMfeEXY0L+GrNTxRGs3FO+FmP6wb2x9/9AbWPFeCRAIlvAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCRS04_03" align="right" hspace="5" width="125" height="46" border="0">nimals.</b></font></font>
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Though the evolution of multicellular plants may also involve a
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series of stages, nothing more will be said about them here, because
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the current project is to show that there is a series of inevitable
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evolutionary stages leading up to rational beings like us (and
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beyond). The evolution of multicellular plants is a separate branch
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of evolution. But to lay the foundation for tracing the evolution of
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animals through a series of inevitable stages to rational beings like
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us, let us first consider the basic nature of animals and inventory
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the kinds of animals that can evolve, both basic and anomalous. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">That
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will leave us to consider, in subsequent chapters, the differences
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among animals that depend on in levels of neurological organization
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at the multicellular stage. The social level of biological
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organization will be introduced by way of insect colonies, for they
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are an example of the anomalous animal that will be explained in this
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catalogue. Though human society is also an animal on the social
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level, it depends on the stages of animal evolution caused by levels
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of neurological organization, and thus, there is not much to say
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about it until after we trace the stages of animal evolution.</font></font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCRS04_04" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="30" border="0">he
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Nature of Animals.</font> The difference between animals and plants
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(and plant-like organisms) is part of the differentiation of
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organisms into kinds that occurs at each stage of biological
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evolution. What makes animals different from plants is not their
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level of part-whole complexity, but that animals acquire the free
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energy (and parts) they need to fuel their reproductive cycles by
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ingesting other objects in space. Those objects are not mere photons,
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but material objects, with rest mass — sometimes just energy-rich
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molecules, but usually other organisms. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Animals
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require, therefore, a kind of behavior that is radically different
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from anything plants require. In order to ingest other objects in
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space, animals must have a kind of behavior that acts on them,
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whereas plants (and plant-like organisms) need only behavior that
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acts on the world as a whole at the moment. Though plants often need
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to orient their bodies and their behavior in the world, they act, at
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most, only in some direction relative to a field in space, such as
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gravitation, in the direction of electromagnetic radiation, or
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relative to gradients of water in the soil, the magnetic field, and
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the flow of air or water. Such behavior is not directed toward
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particular objects in space, but merely affects whatever objects may
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be located in the direction in which its behavior is oriented. By
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contrast, no animal, regardless how simple, could not control even
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the most basic condition that affects its reproduction as an animal,
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unless it could direct its behavior toward particular objects in
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space. Thus, we might say that, whereas plant behavior acts on the
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whole world at the moment (or, at most, some direction in space),
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animal behavior acts on objects in space.</font></font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">A
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new system is required to guide the animal’s special kind of
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behavior, because ingesting other objects is a hazardous way of
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making a living. Ingestion is an intimate way of relating to another
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objects, and since there are usually many kinds of objects around
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that would harm the animal, if ingested, animals must have a
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mechanism of some kind by which to tell in advance which objects to
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ingest and which to pass up. Eating and not eating are incompatible
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behaviors with respect to any given object in space, and <i>selecting
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</i>which objects to eat is, therefore, a condition of the existence
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of reproductive cycles fueled in this way. Such a basic function may
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well be called a "need," and thus, needs, like functions,
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can be used to explain the traits that evolve. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">That is,
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there are various ways of doing non-reproductive work within the
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range of random variations being tied out, and those that make it
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possible for organisms to acquire energy as animals do will be
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selected by their power to control that relevant condition. Thus,
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reproductive causation implies that organisms with animal behavior
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guidance systems will evolve, if they are possible. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
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<i><b>animal behavior guidance system </b></i>is a second system for
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guiding behavior in most animals, because as living organisms,
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animals already have a system that selects between incompatible kinds
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of behavior, namely, the biological behavior guidance system. Such a
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mechanism is needed to coordinate the behavior of the lower level
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organisms that are bundled together as the higher level organism, and
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it is responsible for guiding the organism’ through its
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reproductive cycle.</font></font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
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first such <i><b>biological behavior guidance system </b></i>was at
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the prokaryotic level. It was necessary, as we have seen, because the
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two kinds of work that the first organisms had to perform during each
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cycle in order to evolve, growth and reproduction, were incompatible
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and could not be generated at the same time. Its origin during the
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prokaryotic stage marked the beginning of life, since the ability to
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select and generate both kinds of behavior is what enabled organisms
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to go through reproductive cycles on their own, independently of the
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cycle of night and day. That gave them the autonomous activity
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ordinarily meant by saying that something is alive, and as living
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organisms, that make themselves evolve. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">At
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each subsequent stage of biological organization, a new biological
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behavior guidance system was needed, because it was necessary to
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coordinate the behavior of the new kind of lower level organisms that
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are bundled together and go through reproductive cycles as a whole.
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Since, at any biological level, animals already have a biological
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behavior guidance system, and he animal behavior guidance system is
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their second system for guiding behavior, one whose function is to
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guide the special kind of behavior that animals need in order to
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acquire free energy by ingesting other material objects in space. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
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reason for calling both mechanisms "behavior guidance systems"
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is that they similar kinds of functions. In both cases, a basic
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choice must be made between incompatible kinds of behavior in order
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for organism of their kind to go through reproductive cycles at all.
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For organisms to be alive, it is the choice between growing and
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reproducing, whereas for living organisms to be animals, it is the
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choice between eating a particular object and not. There is no way to
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avoid making such a choice in either case, for the two essential
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kinds of behavior cannot be generated at the same time. (It is less
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inconvenient in multicellular organisms, with their unique way of
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reproducing, because this choice is made when cells are determined to
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have different functions and some are assigned the task of
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reproducing the organism as a whole.) Since the biological and animal
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behavior guidance systems evolve to serve similar functions, we can
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discern a basic similarity in their structures, because they must
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serve similar subfunctions. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">A
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<i><b>behavior guidance system </b></i>is not a mere cybernetic
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device, as we have seen. Cybernetic systems use feedback from the
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consequence of their behavior to attain or maintain some overarching
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goal. But behavior guidance systems are essentially different,
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because their function is to select between incompatible goals. The
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difference can be seen in how the behavior guiding function requires
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mechanisms to serve no less than three sub-functions, regarding
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input, selection and output. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Input.
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</b></i></font>In order to make the selection among possible goals,
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<i>input </i>is required about the current state of affairs, either
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about the world as a whole or about particular objects in space. That
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means that the system must be affected by the state of the world
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(including, perhaps, the state of the organism itself) in a special
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way when choosing one of the alternatives or the other would control
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the condition that affects reproduction. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Selection.
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</b></i></font>The input must change a state of the behavior guidance
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system in some way so that the system <i>selects </i>the right goal
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from the alternatives, which is its basic function. This is the
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sub-function that a cybernetic system lacks.</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Output.
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</b></i></font>In order for its selection to make a difference, the
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behavior guidance system must also be able to <i>generate </i>the
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appropriate kind of behavior. Since it is directed at a goal, such
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output typically has the structure of a cybernetic system, using
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feedback from the effects of earlier behavior to adjust its output to
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attain the chosen goal. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Thus,
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the behavior guidance system's three essential sub-functions are
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receiving input, selecting the goal, and generating output (which may
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also use input as feedback). It cannot get by with fewer
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sub-functions, whereas the cybernetic system, with a fixed goal,
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requires only a mechanism for registering input and generating
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behavior accordingly. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The nature
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of reproductive causation entails, as we have seen, that
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non-reproductive work is not a means to reproduction as an end in the
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biological behavior guidance system. The goals of non-reproductive
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work are the conditions affecting reproduction that must be
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controlled, whereas reproduction is merely the cause of the natural
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selection by which they evolve. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Animal
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behavior </b></i>itself is different from the kinds of behavior
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guided by the biological behavior guidance system, because it must be
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directed at other objects in space, not merely at the world as a
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whole (including orientation in a field of some kind). The <i>spatial
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aspect of animal behavior </i>may not be obvious in some cases. It
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can be just an aspect of the unchanging structure of the animal body
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as, for example, in sedentary animals that filter the flow of water
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to feed on smaller organisms. But the spatial aspect is essential,
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because the free energy that animals use is contained in objects that
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have locations in space. Those objects must be ingested, and in order
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for animals to become more powerful, they must acquire traits that
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take advantage of how their sources of free energy are located in
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space. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
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the behavior guided by biological system is not directed at any other
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particular objects in space, but only at the world as a whole, it can
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still gradually evolve greater power, because it can organize
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different kinds of behavior in time. As we have seen, the biological
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behavior guidance system is a higher level structural cause that
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coordinates the behavior of the many lower level organisms of which
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it is composed, and it is responsible for all the behavior required
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to complete a whole reproductive cycle, including both growth and
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reproduction. Such a complex material structure is what made it
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possible to explain gradual evolution as a global regularity that is
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caused ontological by reproductive cycles and the wholeness of space.
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</font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though the
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cycle of reproduction does not exist fully at each moment, its
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structural cause does, and since the entire cycle is implicit in a
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material structure (that is, its biological behavior guidance system)
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which does exist fully at each moment, the ontological cause of
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gradual evolution could be described, paradoxically, as a four
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dimensional object that endures through time and reproduces in space.
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Thus, implicitly contained in the structure of the biological
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behavior guidance system are not only both the phases of growth and
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reproduction, but all the responses to changing circumstances and
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sequences of behaviors using feedback to attain goals that occur
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during the entire reproductive cycle. </font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It may be
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surprising that nothing but the right sequence of activities at the
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right times is needed to generate a whole reproductive cycle (except,
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perhaps, for orienting itself in various fields). But taking
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advantage of the power to sequence behavior temporally is what
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enables the biological behavior guidance system to become
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increasingly powerful at each stage of evolution. In addition to
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making each behavior as effective as possible in controlling its
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relevant condition, reproductive causation inserts or deletes kinds
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of behavior from temporal sequences, changes their duration or
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quantities, and rearranges their sequences in time. The right
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sequence (conditioned on relevant input) can be very powerful. That
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is why the biological behavior guidance system is the locus of most
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evolutionary changes in such organisms.</font></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
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difference between animal and merely biological behavior is
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ontologically basic, because in addition to any <i>temporal
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</i>sequencing of behavior that is generated by the biological
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behavior guidance system, the animal behavior guidance system also
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imposes a <i>spatial </i>structure on the behavior of the organism by
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acting on other objects in space. Insofar as the power of the animal
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behavior guidance system to control what happens increases by taking
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advantage of the fact that the objects containing free energy have
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locations in space, animal behavior is superimposing a geometrical
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structure on the region. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Organisms
|
||
can evolve only in regions where there is a supply of free energy,
|
||
and as we have seen, there is a region-wise geometrical structure
|
||
about the thermodynamic flow of matter from potential energy through
|
||
kinetic energy (and radiation) toward evenly distributed heat that
|
||
constitute free (or usable) energy. Thus, we can see animal behavior
|
||
as channeling the thermo­dynamics flow in the region. In other
|
||
words, what most material structures do simply by existing in the
|
||
region, animals do by acting on objects in space. That is what makes
|
||
animals more powerful than plants, and it suggests how far animals
|
||
might evolve in the power to control relevant conditions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Structural
|
||
causes generate irreversible structural global regularities by using
|
||
free energy to do work, that is, making things happen that would not
|
||
otherwise happen. Though animals are just organisms contained along
|
||
with other objects in the region, the evolution of behavior that
|
||
takes into account the locations of other objects in space in order
|
||
to control conditions that affect their behavior can channel the flow
|
||
of free energy toward increasing entropy <i>over very large regions
|
||
of space</i>. In other words, the <i>spatial </i>aspect of animal
|
||
behavior (being directed at objects in space) imposes a <i>geometrical
|
||
</i>structure on the region (and, thereby, channels the
|
||
thermo­dynamic flow in the region in a way that would otherwise
|
||
require a material structure as large as the relevant region, like a
|
||
giant machine or building). The actualization of the potential of
|
||
animal behavior to do work in the region is what we are tracing by
|
||
deriving from spatiomaterialism the evolutionary stages that
|
||
determine the overall course of evolution. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
potential is actualized mainly in multicellular animals because of
|
||
the evolution of a series of level of neurological organization in
|
||
them, but before we trace those stages, let us catalogues all the
|
||
other animals to see how multicellular animals are related to all the
|
||
other kinds of animals. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">K<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAFAAAAAPCAMAAABEF7i9AAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpGPjA4MSYqJR0cGBMNDAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD2Ty12AAAA6klEQVR4nLWTwQ4DIQhEEVEwitv+/8921E0Ttz3uctBBxxcIkd43Bz0ApBvjKSALkcb8PS6bKXre8j2LW3oCxUgrxe+xb0887FXELcPbf8BcB8aag9v9RdlnWRFbfPlAdG9BegPd6Wi9QsFZ8BamcgX2I0xgwlIZS0vzvjH1s15WFylkgrzTUtEOANXCT4Ul+gQO91Rsbqt3X0DuqQraOy1T5SZAW9DqPy0Tej6BZukgTanhHvoExiZ+BepwiqUM7g4cU04Yl/AYoeaMZnT2kbGtMSZNDN+0ZFpqOFlYjS/A++IZ4O1/+d74AM+CH3mzq/1WAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCRS04_05" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="37" border="0">inds
|
||
of animals</font>. Stepping back from the multicellular level of
|
||
biological organization, this explanation of the nature of animals
|
||
entails a classification of animals into their natural kinds. The
|
||
basic kinds of animals are easy to classify, because they are
|
||
ontologically necessary, and identifying them will provide a map of
|
||
subsequent stages. However, this way of sorting out the basic kinds
|
||
of animals resolves several puzzles about the classification of
|
||
animals in biology, and thus, we will conclude with a survey of the
|
||
kinds of anomalous animals that are just as ontologically necessary. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>B<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCRS04_06" align="right" hspace="5" width="225" height="26" border="0">asic
|
||
kinds of animals.</b></i> Since animal behavior guidance systems
|
||
evolve at each level, the most basic divisions among animals
|
||
correspond to the levels of part-whole complexity in the biological
|
||
behavior guidance system discussed in the last section. We should
|
||
expect some kinds of animals at each level of biological
|
||
organization, because animals are just a variety of the living
|
||
objects that evolved at each stage of evolution. They are, in
|
||
technical terms, heterotrophs, which acquire the free energy to fuel
|
||
their structural effects from objects with a rest mass where energy
|
||
is stored in their chemical bonds. Plants, by contrast, are
|
||
autotrophs, which acquire energy directly from the sun by absorbing
|
||
photons. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: -3.18cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="AnmlKinds" align="bottom" width="600" height="350" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">At
|
||
the <i><b>prokaryotic level </b></i>of biological organization, the
|
||
heterotrophs are <i>bacteria</i>. They feed on energy-rich molecules,
|
||
and their varieties mirror the kinds of molecules they consume. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The animal
|
||
behavior guidance system at this level need not be very complex. It
|
||
is a molecular structure in the cell wall that can identify the right
|
||
kinds of molecules and draw them through the cell wall into the cell
|
||
to be dismantled inside while keeping dangerous (and useless)
|
||
molecules outside. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
autotrophs at this level, such as cyanobacteria, also consume
|
||
molecules, but only for use as parts in growing (or as input
|
||
signals), not as a source of free energy. Parts can be acquired
|
||
without an animal behavior guidance system, because the simplest,
|
||
energy-poor molecules, which are almost always available as part of
|
||
the medium both inside and outside the cell and pose no danger, can
|
||
be used as parts. But animals need a special system in order to
|
||
ingest large, energy rich molecules, for that poses a hazard.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">At
|
||
the <i><b>eukaryotic level </b></i>of biological organization, the
|
||
heterotrophs are animal-like protists, or single-celled eukaryotes.
|
||
They feed mainly on prokaryotes and plant-like protists (algae). But
|
||
there are several new animal behavior guidance systems, and to
|
||
suggest their range, let me mention three kinds. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
<i>paramecium </i>has a stiffened cell membrane with an oral groove
|
||
along one side in which many hair-like cilia sweep small particles
|
||
into a mouth, where they are enclosed in a vacuole for digestion
|
||
inside the cell — unless they are harmful and they are kept out.
|
||
This animal behavior guidance system is clearly independent of the
|
||
biological behavior guidance system, the nucleus, for when the
|
||
nucleus is removed, a paramecium continues moving and feeding for
|
||
many days. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Amoebas
|
||
</i>have a soft plasma membrane, instead of the stiffened cell
|
||
membrane that gives paramecia their shape, and amoebas move along the
|
||
substratum by constructing an extension of the plasma membranes on
|
||
one side of the body while dismantling it on the other (pseudopodia).
|
||
Amoebas ingest prokaryotes, algae, and even small animal like
|
||
protists by wrapping part of their outer membrane around the
|
||
energy-rich object and then enclosing the package within its
|
||
cytoplasm as a food vacuole where digestion takes place. Hence, their
|
||
choice about feeding is made locally in the course of moving about. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Finally,
|
||
<i>collar flagellates </i>remain attached to the substratum and use
|
||
the whip-like motion of their flagellum to pull microorganisms to a
|
||
region near a collar at the base of the flagellum where they can be
|
||
ingested.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There is
|
||
one kind of protist, Euglena, whose identity as plant or animal is in
|
||
doubt, because these flagellates have chloroplasts for acquiring
|
||
energy from photons and yet also ingest prokaryotes. However, they
|
||
may be plants, rather than animals, because they probably use their
|
||
prokaryotic prey for their nutrients, rather than for energy, since
|
||
what is scarce near the surface of the ocean which they inhabit are
|
||
heavier atoms. (This is the kind of scarcity that accounts for
|
||
animal-like multicellular flowers in rain forests, such as the Venus
|
||
fly-trap, that ingest animals. But since the objects are ingested for
|
||
parts, rather than energy, they are not animals by this definition.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
<i><b>multicellular level </b></i>of biological organization makes
|
||
possible the most powerful ways of guiding animal behavior, because
|
||
it uses multiple neurons. Neurons are cells whose structure enables
|
||
them to transmit signals from one place in the body to another or
|
||
among themselves, and since neurons are capable of being organized at
|
||
a series of levels of part-whole complexity, there are differences
|
||
among kinds of multicellular animals that are nearly as basic as
|
||
these differences among other kinds of animals. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Multicellular
|
||
animals direct behavior at other objects by the contraction of muscle
|
||
cells located where the muscles are needed to change the body’s
|
||
shape, and neurons generate behavior by controlling the relevant
|
||
muscles. But behavior must depend on input from the other objects in
|
||
space in order for animals to choose how to behave towards them and
|
||
to generate behavior whose spatial aspects will control the outcome
|
||
of interacting with them, and so neurons must be connected to sensory
|
||
receptors on which other objects in space have an effect. The choice
|
||
of kind of behavior depends on the “interneurons” connecting
|
||
sensory neurons on the input side and motor neurons on the output
|
||
side (usually in conjunction with input about the state of the body
|
||
itself concerning its energy needs, mating urges, damage to cells,
|
||
and the like). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
behavior of the neuron itself is generated, as in all machines, by
|
||
the geometrical structure of such material objects and how they
|
||
structure the flow of free energy toward entropy increase in their
|
||
region. In the neuron, molecular mechanisms in the plasma membrane
|
||
control of the passage of sodium and potassium ions through its
|
||
plasma membrane in such a way that an action potential propagates
|
||
along the axon of the neuron, and that affects the passage of small
|
||
proteins, called “neurotransmitters,” at the synapses where they
|
||
meet determines whether a signal is passed on. But the details of the
|
||
neuron's mechanism are well known and not relevant here.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What is
|
||
relevant is how they constitute an animal behavior guidance system.
|
||
Any behavior guidance system, given its function of selecting between
|
||
incompatible kinds of behavior, must have systems serving three basic
|
||
sub-functions, and in those that are made of neurons, they will be
|
||
called the <i>sensory input system</i>, the <i>goal selection system
|
||
</i>and the <i>behavioral output system</i>. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Among
|
||
animals with nervous systems, the most basic classification has to do
|
||
with the level of part-whole complexity in the systems serving the
|
||
three basic sub-functions. The animal behavior guidance system
|
||
imposes a geometrical order on the region by how it moves its body
|
||
around and acts on other objects in space, and there are higher
|
||
levels of neurological organization in multicellular animals, because
|
||
they are possible and each actualizes further the power that animals
|
||
can have by taking spatial aspects of the objects on which they act
|
||
into account in guiding their behavior in relation to them. The
|
||
levels of part-whole complexity occur in the three basic systems
|
||
making up the animal behavior guidance system, and given the
|
||
ontological explanation of revolutionary evolution, they lead, as we
|
||
shall see below, to three additional stages of evolution in
|
||
multicellular animals. <i>Somatosensory </i>animals are the first
|
||
animals to evolve at the multicellular level, and three additional
|
||
stages occur because of levels of neurological organization:
|
||
<i>telesensory </i>(most invertebrates and non-mammalian
|
||
vertebrates), <font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><i>subjective
|
||
</i></font>(mammals), and <font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><i>manipulative
|
||
</i></font>(primates).</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">At
|
||
the <i><b>social level </b></i>of biological organization, there are
|
||
two basically different kinds of animals, only one of which has a new
|
||
kind of animal behavior guidance system that is possible only at the
|
||
social level. That is the spiritual animal, which is made up of
|
||
primates as its lower level organism. The same behavior guidance
|
||
system serves as both its biological and animal behavior guidance
|
||
system, because the behavior of many individual primates is
|
||
coordinated so that the spiritual animal acts as a whole by the use
|
||
of language. The capacity to use language depends on the evolution of
|
||
additional levels of neurological organization, which determines a
|
||
series of stages of evolution (though, as we shall see, the last
|
||
level does not require any change in the biologically inherited
|
||
structure of the nervous system).</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Primitive
|
||
spiritual animals </i>are groups of primates with the capacity to use
|
||
a language of natural sentences (that is, sentences with a simple
|
||
subject-predicate grammar). The <i>linguistic level of neurological
|
||
organization </i>comes from a higher level of part-whole complexity
|
||
within the primate faculty of imagination in the so-called “left
|
||
brain” which enables it to combine the meanings of words as
|
||
propositions and to indicate the structure of the covert linguistic
|
||
act involved by verbal behavior (by words and grammatical markers). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Rational
|
||
spiritual animals </i>are also animals at the social level of
|
||
biological organization, but they have the capacity to use
|
||
psychological sentences (that is, sentences with predicates formed of
|
||
verbs of propositional attitude, such as “believes” and
|
||
“desires,” together with complete sentences). This linguistic
|
||
capacity enables the users of language able to think about the causes
|
||
of their behavior and belief as part of the process of causing them,
|
||
and so it will called the <i>reflective level of neurological
|
||
organization.</i> Reflection makes it possible for language to guide
|
||
individual level and social level behavior in a new way, which
|
||
involves rational imagination and enables them to understand
|
||
arguments, and that is the foundation for a new form of evolution by
|
||
reproductive causation, namely, cultural evolution. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Philosophical
|
||
spiritual animals </i>are social level animals in which culture has
|
||
evolved a new level of argument, in which all the arguments of the
|
||
rational level are organized as parts of a single argument. That is a
|
||
means of proving that propositions are necessarily true, and thus, it
|
||
is a new way of discovering the true and the good. Though this is a
|
||
stage of cultural evolution, it gives the members of the spiritual
|
||
animals in which it exists a higher level of rational imagination,
|
||
and thus, it is also the <i>philosophical level of neurological
|
||
organization</i>. But there are, as we have seen, two ways of
|
||
constructing such philosophical arguments, epistemological and
|
||
ontological, and only one of them is able to succeed.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
classification of animals identifies most of the natural kinds, but
|
||
there is another kind of animal it leaves out. It may be represented
|
||
by the other kind of animal at the social level of biological
|
||
organization, or multisomatic animals, such as insect colonies. They
|
||
have long posed a puzzle for zoologists, because it is not obvious
|
||
how to classify them. They are social and, thus, like human society,
|
||
and yet they are so different. But insect colonies are only one of a
|
||
number of animals that have defied classification, and this
|
||
ontological explanation of evolution, including both gradual
|
||
evolution and revolutionary evolution, offers a solution. Thus, we
|
||
may use the way in which it solve the problem of anomalous animals as
|
||
a further reason to believe that it is true, before we take up the
|
||
structure of the nervous system and explain how it works in detail. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>A<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCRS04_07" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="22" border="0">nomalous
|
||
Kinds of Animals. </b></i>There is another way that the animal
|
||
behavior guidance system combines with the levels of biological
|
||
organization to account for species as natural kinds. Thus far,
|
||
animals have been classified according to the new kind of animal
|
||
behavior guidance system made possible by each biological level —
|
||
as bacteria, animal-like protists, and animals with nervous systems,
|
||
and spiritual animals. But the same elements can be used to explain
|
||
the various anomalous kinds of animals. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
requires only that we notice that organisms with the new kind of
|
||
animal behavior guidance system made possible by one biological level
|
||
can also be organized merely as so many lower level organisms bundled
|
||
together as a higher level animal organism. Though it does not have
|
||
the new kind of animal behavior guidance system made possible by its
|
||
own level of biological organization, it is still an animal, because
|
||
it is a heterotroph. Its only animal behavior guidance system is the
|
||
kind that evolved at the lower level of biological organization. And
|
||
it has many of them, one in each of its parts. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The most
|
||
obvious example is the <i><b>sponge</b></i>. Sponges are
|
||
multicellular organisms. And they are animals, acquiring energy from
|
||
energy-rich objects. But unlike other multicellular animals, they
|
||
lack a nervous system. The reason is that the sponge is just an
|
||
organization of collar flagellates, each with an animal behavior
|
||
guidance system of a kind that evolved in collar flagellates on the
|
||
eukaryotic level, but put together as a multicellular organism. These
|
||
animal .like protists are configured like a jar; their flagellums
|
||
pull water through pores in its side and push it out an opening at
|
||
the top. Each cell feeds on microorganisms that gather around the
|
||
collar at the base of its flagellum, and they share their energy with
|
||
other kinds of cells that hold them together and form pores to the
|
||
outside. However, the basic choice required by their animal nature is
|
||
made by the individual cells. The sponge has no animal behavior
|
||
guidance system as a whole. It would be just a multicellular plant,
|
||
except that its cells are animal-like rather than plant-like. (See
|
||
diagram of anomalous animals.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: -2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAjgAAAFPCAMAAAB3ZEQgAAAAD1BMVEUAAACBgYH8A/sAAAD///+TTjM+AAAAA3RSTlP//wDXyg1BAAASUUlEQVR4nO2diZakKBBFOfz/R890lcCLALcg1NB6d6Y7M5UlgCsuaacpEWIiE3IaikNMUBxiguIQExSHmKA4xATFISYoDjFBcYgJikNMUBxiguIQExSHmKA4xATFISYoDjERTZzH7hCq9XpG8OH7ncI17LGASr2uAYTrXjeitez/cB6KqE040yVhmcH6143A4pRpXu5Euv3JMBkWqBLgR2x7t3L0qc+kopMJVlvz8/dWI0QrIu7xgkW09Cp8yDgXiGHKMhW+EQWCObC6G+VlPHOWibaydCF1Ra62pmi62oisvInmTrhwsuhqGPCkX9T8ghsrlAeZcOSkk8tbpVEfAZY5CKksPtSanUZk/SbWQAUTR08NMOBJD0dvUN/Fej7B/IO6u2ETEYACo9Jr8Udas9+ITpxgRBNHvbTJvh8l8Yp7mmPi6Nk/iX1VLQl2N7vidDuy1dbsNwLFibejCiZOO0oQ3bgiTulvORJ90tzKgoWDA5JlsfgEEZwVZ6s1+43Ig4JOdebFhApn0NVqhofFdZUYtUHS+k7MOLVGlXZ8JGLZVW21Zr8RMON0oUYgVDg4O+c2eGIuUMOQB31eB1Zlwr/bcOjKZd0yAkiwEtLx1uw0AlrRhRqBSOJAKHLOrq9twobRh8kkp7oRV4lwKPrlqkpVt56F+jxdSAdbg5UMG4ETlq42AoHigb75eYvjXZfC2/zb52rwdE+LPu/eSwfqu+WTjGA0gH1Ix1qDi4aNgJZ0oYYgXECOfKNlQVvxZXHIhVAcYoLiEBMUh5igOMQExSEmKA4xQXGICYpDTFAcYoLiEBMUh5igOMQExSEmKA4xQXGICYpDTFAcYoLiEBMUh5igOMQExSEmKA4xQXGICYpDTFAcYoLiEBMUh5igOMQExSEmKA4xQXGICYpDTAzF6X+yrKw4Xu5ETOQFbPnRrzmmA6X5A2xOLN0qikMW9sSpv2veflm1/kxm/l0tFpZV8pdmyefYFacKU/6INz8/plrTrqYkn2PvGEdONEILXJDXBCIfZe+sqhMniZw4sVCcv8TeWbcWB39YPoQ4tPMZToqDeyeUZbj/mh/T0dUkmhKCszPOzeIMSqE4ITgkTneu9PuqxLngrKqVVC8K1MdiLDvOlFcaQS7lmDjddZxyrSYNU7ldx8FvPsq01tRMICbNuRmfjfWqYWvzFsiYi1ByLbmVd4jT5hp1jCWOqciNeIhz3ebeiyN2VWItuZXYk3y7DtkOiTMcHGfuqp6CXU5MUBxiguIQEy4Hx+aV5LVQHGKC4hATbuKMbi5tC8jX8BJn+L35rVfmaOitOInTfYme5BpjsRcmJ3NQHGLCSxy8S7l+f50ozmdxnXGWT+LQhuJ8E/ddVR7cR2ou9sLkZA7vs6qMEs2dVVGcyHhfx8nNn9nrOBQnMoG/5KQ4kQkszjkV4jbjm1AcYoLiEBMUh5igOMREZHHOyBC4Fd8ktjiHY4vcim8SWpz6XWljczG5j7d1Ou8qDALFISbeKM67Iv4obxNn7k4N4sYLxXlZwB+F4hATFIeYeJ049CYGFIeYoDjEBMUhJigOMUFxiAmKQ0xQHGKC4hATG+IM7pLivZxkYUucQ4sO5iQfI6w4XRnrhXZ3WlwqLreKH46JU+67gx+iSPW5490PRuIzgs4fQq3dQnyjOJtB3yDOG+45MoiTcEG7Iy/JnzaRSU8EpKoehdOveb04YnN5uzjt2BjF6VTp5yOZ7GRA7VU9OkYGi4+TwenO4VEyrbwEz3QU8ynWNldZrRK66+3iqLdJtgh+4Q9Gb1qc+oBqUezPCxaZSsqEgaWJeiECPXfi34MNZx7ZqWJLSNvz32OcFWf03HFfcYQQUpzUppk6uTRx2o9VXiSOqKDEMldVq7G+iu0zqjanxVnZ4ryfHz2aQ+Stfzi3q66eFScpBXHGUYuykzpjceAkIx7nD44vFgeqGokjulj0s0w9Qd9Y4YoSx2Vkh+IIXcNxXBx8mGHd1oQ4aoLHN+ciUg7cfHA82ErGB8cqIoc6PyIOnlYleMx4arMobioZx64kdT4I+CziXO3lu6pTxXgUslp41APEv8wbxCEBcRGHM8Lf4y27gbUw3xH9B3mJOK8I8iTrR77pBQ2mOE+xcalCiBO06R7ibJbgc+xdTkxTPXFtV3deCsW5QRxxMa57eSVtWxDbQf8lJy4PtHugOE8BM464TJywXeICdqi2uolTNpy6RCzwqOKj4uA3quLrflyz3Bv0aMASL3Hwj9pQPPiuOOJFzDMywe+KOM11EgcmGrXATxyxbcY5OLZGsCZOWhHHcf724CXirFb8fKGT4oy+bU9qTcZ7AYLgJU79Hj3Xc4WLpwQduVdFd4lzZUk34DrjLJ/EoY29+JM5Xy5OqOnkAO67qjy4G9Bc7IXJ3cq5c7wDueV9VpVRormzqu+KYw71g+JAQcWf2es4FMcvoz+Bd60Uxy+jPxRnthyKEw2K45fRH4ozWw7FiQbF8cvoD8WZLYfiRIPi+GX0J7A457rpqa+MLPVSnGuhOG4Z/aE4kyWZ6jUGG2moKM5kSRQnHhTHJ9slRBbnTEd5tuJ6YSnOtRyPzbUVZ8q6VYFIQxVanNx+3AnuTR0sdm7D9TPdnfPUNQQXR5PEy8W1OCedzhdqpF4mTrk79YZK3JPOZow1UBRnVMnarnB1hUsl8qcxL94dzxIuoB1SfmTTu2cXWct/wZi8TZx/ffpExLfMdKWGNwzJC8V5JGCKo6A4R6u9Zzwf2hWfh+IcrpfiIBQnWL3Bfj9pldeJ81S/UhxJL04avNs+T1SzeJzLur7VUhxkIE7Sb/LOrpfivLCeWSjO4Wpvqvgd3gx3Vam9lssXKeNDcEqmlGA9ps3tqVPux1BPdexd9X5OHCGH/qPFqe/9u4HihGB4cNxsGIkjD5TTSBxc5R6xf5Gh6v3T4tSSKU7YeiYZn46LJ5euilO+7R/tqmC5d8T+RYaq9w+IAzm4q3pdPZNMi8NjnJfWM8nKlWO521HSaItwPR4aXSPOU1AcwY44+Nzoves4Kq14vPRUiOIFFyed5ipShgsL19flWdrmBZGJugJ+yVl/h758HjfwYnHkLcCvFWe7OIrj3og275a6LhHn+pvQ6/yfs3gixM8uYfnLVG5AcZb/2vFT/bYjwYPixFE5LvZoUbOk1pW6uuarknpegjoQlQelEwcTrxCna21bjH2iZoa5GNprGoiTfQyt1Ygtos0JcoIwV9Hc/y21NmKiv0KK00khhkxcdpSzwMQW1MWg69IzjsvX5akOYJblD5YZa4A/uQXd6jWq80ZxVLLh3DMfw35dPnNbG9mhOGXeMZcPf7pKRIeejXu++ZslnC++zaK5H7L1XZWrOMu2uF2XX1XbM85vKlttdRZOOeP+EHaLEwVPcpU4sPNZPTgWaTwvOab9upx6bleciXnhOgKK85doegpLUVOcJgLhJk67ipwzzA4U5whrnRS487zE0cdgagHZZNhJ8WYZxEkcmGjUgsiNJ3beIs5amO5engk5XRTDG/ASp9wNWM8E4PZAB+4bmzM1UZzJMkTfuT0+WlVxExTnGO67Kn3twaVX27ec9dTV+bLNUmIJGb83rl0EC+HEOer58knOhu99VpVRIr+zKnX0JF+cQNf7+kQQSScMaM3JkJ4SBwpq26cloPUqLhenxKvEqVflt8SJZ84LxLmBO8TJcMe0qk8H0YkTUB2K8497xMlr4uzOONk7knkozj/K3hDH1PvgeHBjYamoBdH2XzKMeN1IcdZ5cejXQ3FWeG/k90BxiAmKQ2ycGtjTFlCcz0JxiAmKQ0xQHGKC4hAbJ0b2vAQU57scH1qDBBTnyyTN5uKzRbuGSkKT6l/TJVGcvwTFISbaXSDTJVGcP4XbnSgU52/h9xsbFOdPQXGICYpDTFAcYsNruCnOH4PiEBMRxFn/miOtfiAPE0Cco/8OjeJE4nlxknrdTUgiEEccWUz7J47lHzlSnFA8Lw6GUP2Af29d/6I4kQggjvxH1cKRNFpIIhBBnKz2TP1xj/uPZpEozF/HSWviwC+jkQfZHmLzIe5l4nBXFYXNAbhfHJCE4oTmZzTwlzDhvfFWda8LgKOzqiU2ivM4KYuBkYP0xK5K/oMLfFOEdnuENJkAxSmzTxIbvqVQfsn5eUCcXJ78lSkO2UOIk4dPVzQUSnG+Dv7kpvgZ+PLBXiohZ6E4xATFISbcnuVgWkleC8X5M+iRmBsZivNn8B0J78cOtatKro8dIvPEFEdfZFILyDPgdZv6LqnPJgmcxIGJRi2gOA/SLg4ndbFYfz5fNMX5MGJYRuL8fhFtGSMvcdqPEF7y+GhiYlecku7hXdXySRzaUJwHObarypZRct9V5SseH02MjA+Oc7PG/Hg/77OqjBLxrOq7eF/Hyc0fXsf5MvySk5igOMQExSEmKA4xQXGICYpDTFAcYoLiEBMUh5igOMQExSEmKA4xQXGICYpDTFAcYoLiEBMUh5igOMQExSEmKA4xQXGICYpDTFAcYoLiEBMUh5igOMQExSEmKA4xQXGICYpDTFAcYoLiEBMUh5igOMQExSEmKA4xQXGICYpDTFAcYoLiEBMUh5igOMQExSEmjoqzl+pAMTrFYWUNch+NZljyMFBM2efaqi+tVnQSUcaJ8nbbM65hLxgfcSwP+ziY5bJnFx1+uE33NJPrGruZ1Ksbxk9nOfesn4Pi7D+48VJxroHidEuvEifV5yaW93XWS7AYHp4FKdNallZiX+zv0p+FarWIoz5bstbV8rWQlyBq8gRbxE6gPylhQWqFLU/VhfDy8mTJUqiISvQgtLBFpnJB9C2EGmSuj7Tc6AwotIUIvdRCwp73EQfMqYNeP7Yq2/vU8tUeGGRpyYbF5jp+anVZ0UpPK590Yfg/lrUVaBkuTCcb3YLJuoqu5GEf1ZSQW0Wf+tVYym5ntFhqYSUf9nPtLA9xEvQIGpKTdLUkSS1jN1qQJVUvsy62VAnL5YCsxYER9PHISMGozUBrbQnTYbtlYZ0OMr4k+hQjbUm7tgxDONYZxYq2/akMYkE6IsUxcWRNeoRHiweb3iALJOvFwcp3xMmDUc+p+7T0+0ic3UDBgWG7hThNgCxSSHFgEFrZuC8edVPS6wab16gzVC/j0k6cA0ZcJc7B8RDJhsWqLlkRZ1DX6FNLNSOOKnNZKcTBsc1jcXQfdb0yiL4rJ7dR3uwMWavovTwUZ1+KQ+LUg79ywNk+10OvepBVP2b8kNobyALJZDXL/6VyPPqEdXJxXxfEK/dVuCbLqMeBtq5SxWJpqXVnPd4sVUDRNX6RthWU2x8dvQgBB2O/M0qhrTisdxkD0bsO4oSnbkZBMMVja0Bf1dnKjfVSnAuwxGOMf1oca72fECdcM07HY4+/r+pM5eZ6o/U4eQkUh5igOMTEEXHwwiV+znJxW4cJ+vK3KkzjLBdzaus5ffyQxKd+/cayBOfGK70v4tlvR5/gyoPj7uhrL23SC85x6cnksOuuUXVjA1tZ0nXdILbd3j/ORLMpzoUn8g7iDFK9Shy8mPm7GbSrkPApV3FwwfK2XtBsF0jrNU+4ZJnqN7ipZC0XPXOZvOUfzFZSZQgKLrdi/a3ouoOsIUGEJTYRWNL1qcy132qG1DqippQdA/0nA1vrfdn9fe5ca8bo4SpyWyfCP8QxccqcWeJuX3IkfK1dmXBxKm9VbjgGgP/RAZE1ibR9rXUws8oiYxFh5qxLTnKNqL7/NErdihxlb3FAa1R7ZGCrvS+7f5BbDY9OiB2J4XuK00XciVPLgtDrdzmprpOR1tJlL0D6Unj7fkUMck0rhegOKqFAGDc9PsORSyqcnGQQXWroVDVyok9U7NgMHdhK76vuH+YeRF8Stf7Q4R9iShzcFw16EhZLLaQ4dZKVKaQ4EHArG4daVZ9KUl1gyynHJ+kSsBT1//rMhdVjHtFxQpzljdDkoDiyL4bBj6PP8tP94shWj8SB0W+DpsSRnTzOqpXQVXbVr+yqNnp4XwXZmBPiwCcxQGtjKTtoVRzR/ePcg+h18ivFacdq8g0coi6p5Ff2eCDZpkYsJmPicoxc/y5Zl6Ig3KTqgHpUJLkW0I4KZc1J5oEGiL8wrEF9dclSVGtp7aOaIYlcpT2DVSmr0kXvy+7Xvd9i6KIvyzKEVuNzFWctc2nyFJZSzmwaJ4seZJ9to08/WYq9qOb8VnHOJKc4/jXnSXEmc1tLOZV8OkSPNvr0k6XYi2q+sGDybSgOMUFxiAmKQ0wkQkz8B8UoiagWdBPKAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="AnomalousAnimals" align="bottom" width="568" height="335" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
<i><b>cellular slime mold </b></i>is a similar kind of animal, except
|
||
that the parts are amoeboid animal-like cells, rather than collar
|
||
flagellates. When a spore from the cellular slime mold lands where
|
||
food is available, it feeds, grows and reproduces repeatedly,
|
||
spreading out as far as food is available. But when food runs out,
|
||
they all move back toward the center, climb on top of one another and
|
||
form a slug-like animal, which may move around as a unit for a while.
|
||
Eventually, however, it becomes a stalked, fruiting body from which
|
||
new spores are released to try their luck at finding new feeding
|
||
areas. The biological behavior guidance system coordinates their
|
||
behavior, using messenger proteins to determine the cells to have
|
||
different kinds of behavior. Their bodies become polarized front to
|
||
back; each secretes messenger molecules from one end and moves toward
|
||
the same molecules that are secreted by others. However, the choice
|
||
required by its animal nature, between feeding or not on the objects
|
||
it encounters, is made by the animal behavior guidance systems of its
|
||
amoeboid members. (See diagram of anomalous animals.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Fungi</b></i>
|
||
are so anomalous that they are almost always classified as a third
|
||
kingdom, separate from both plants and animals. But the recognition
|
||
that the only animal behavior guidance system that some animals have
|
||
is an animal behavior guidance system located in their parts that
|
||
evolved at a lower level of biological organization reveals that
|
||
fungi are <i>animals </i>of an anomalous, but natural kind.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Fungi are
|
||
basically eukaryotes, because they have a nucleus. But their animal
|
||
behavior guidance system is at the prokaryotic level. Fungi acquire
|
||
energy by ingesting energy-rich molecules (usually after secreting
|
||
special proteins to promote decomposition outside their bodies), and
|
||
thus, they need only the prokaryote's mechanisms for selecting which
|
||
kinds of molecules to admit and which kinds to exclude. Many such
|
||
mechanisms are located in their cell wall. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In fact,
|
||
this prokaryotic animal behavior guidance system is organized on two
|
||
higher levels of biological organization. There are fungus-like
|
||
protists, such as yeast, at the level of the single-celled eukaryote,
|
||
and there are fungi, like mushrooms, at the multi-cellular level.
|
||
(Multicellular fungi are actually multi-nucleated organisms, because
|
||
their many nuclei inhabit an interconnected labyrinth of cell walls
|
||
containing many prokaryotic animal behavior guidance systems operated
|
||
jointly. A multi . nucleated structure is possible, because fungi
|
||
have no mitochondria to keep under control. But the reason that they
|
||
lack mitochondria is probably that the prokaryotes from which fungi
|
||
acquired their animal behavior guidance system did not use the
|
||
oxygen-consuming process to extract energy from energy-rich
|
||
molecules.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are,
|
||
therefore, three levels of animals with the simplest kind of animal
|
||
behavior guidance system: bacteria, single-celled fungi, and
|
||
multicellular fungi (see diagram of anomalous kinds of animals). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Finally,
|
||
this same way of combining animal behavior guidance systems with
|
||
levels of biological organization accounts for what might be called
|
||
“multisomatic animals,” including insect colonies, hydrozoa
|
||
(colonies of hydra), corals, and the colonies of blind mole-rats in
|
||
East Africa. In each case, the only animal behavior guidance systems
|
||
are the nervous systems contained in the multicellular animals of
|
||
which the multisomatic organism is composed. Thus, the organism's
|
||
behavior as a whole depends mainly on the biological behavior
|
||
guidance system at the multicellular level, and it reproduces as a
|
||
whole. (See diagram of anomalous animals.)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In insect
|
||
colonies, for example, the mating flight of the queen sets up a whole
|
||
new colony composed of her offspring. But sexual reproduction
|
||
involves the construction of a entire new colony from a fertilized
|
||
egg cell (at the eukaryotic level). Thus, it must construct organisms
|
||
at two levels of part-whole complexity. After constructing the
|
||
queen’s body, her body is used to construct the other members, and
|
||
the queen becomes the center of a multisomatic structure in which
|
||
pheromones are used to coordinate the behavior of her multicellular
|
||
offspring (the same mechanism used to coordinate cells at the
|
||
multicellular level). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
limitations of such a mechanism are worth noting. It must make sure
|
||
that pheromones are received by the right animal parts, but since its
|
||
multicellular parts do nor remain attached to one another like cells
|
||
in a multicellular organism, the biological behavior guidance system
|
||
must require the multicellular animals to have certain unchanging
|
||
spatial relations, or else it could not use the locations of the
|
||
pheromones to give them different kinds of behavior. Thus,
|
||
multisomatic organisms have hives, labyrinths of tunnels, or the like
|
||
in which pheromones can be distributed, and though its parts have
|
||
locomotion, the whole multisomatic organism is basically sedentary. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">All
|
||
the kinds of animals, including these anomalous heterotrophs, fall
|
||
naturally into one or another of the categories generated by
|
||
combining the concept of an animal behavior guidance system with the
|
||
concept of levels of biological organization. Animals that lack the
|
||
new kind of animal behavior guidance system that evolves at their own
|
||
level of biological organization are made of lower level organisms
|
||
each with the animal behavior guidance system that evolved at a lower
|
||
level of biological organization. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
classification of insect colonies as an anomalous kind of animal at
|
||
the social level does suggest, however, that a new kind of animal
|
||
behavior guidance system may be possible at the social level of
|
||
biological organization. That is the possibility realized that is
|
||
realized in a unique way by the evolution of language among
|
||
manipulative animals, that is, as spiritual animals. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</body>
|
||
</html>
|