16703 lines
1.6 MiB
16703 lines
1.6 MiB
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<title>Contingent laws about local regularities</title>
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<meta name="author" content="Amr Gharbeia">
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC7" align="right" hspace="5" width="65" height="30" border="0">ontingent
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laws about local regularities. </b></font>Though certain kinds of
|
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events are ruled out as ontologically impossible by the necessary
|
||
principles about local regularities, that leaves open many ways for
|
||
bits of matter to behave. Indeed, it leaves open the possibility that
|
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no change actually takes place at all. But if bits of matter in space
|
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do change as time passes, they must change in determinate ways, and
|
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how they move and interact is what is described by the basic laws of
|
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physics. Since that is something that can be known only by observing
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<i>what happens </i>in nature, those regularities are not
|
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ontologically necessary. Assuming that they have ontological causes,
|
||
they depend on the <i>specific kind of matter </i>and <i>specific
|
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kind of space </i>that constitute the actual world. Thus, although
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spatiomaterialism explains the basic nature of what exists,
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||
ontological philosophy needs to make additional assumptions about the
|
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specific essential natures of the matter and space it postulates in
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order to explain the truth of the basic laws of physics. </font></font></font>
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</p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">The
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properties mentioned in basic laws of physics are called “physical
|
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properties,” and as noted in </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/LoOthP.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Properties</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
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ontological philosophy takes physical properties to characterize the
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||
extrinsic essential aspects of the nature of matter and space.
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||
(</span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>Intrinsic
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</i></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">essential
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natures, by contrast, are what explain phenomenal properties.) And in
|
||
the same way that physical properties (and spatial relations) are
|
||
explained as aspects of the basic substances constituting the world,
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||
basic physical laws describing how they change can be explained as
|
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aspects of those substances as they endure through time.</span></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">If
|
||
the matter postulated by an ontology were simply assumed to have
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whatever essential nature is required to make the basic laws of
|
||
physics true, there would be no genuine ontological explanation of
|
||
why the basic physical laws are true. That is what materialism does
|
||
(hence, its other name, “physicalism”). Indeed, that is the only
|
||
way that physical properties can be introduced by materialism,
|
||
because when space is reduced to spatial relations among bits of
|
||
matter (as materialism does, being implicitly committed to spatial
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||
relationism), matter is the only possible ontological cause of
|
||
physical properties and regularities about how they change over time.
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But a spatiomaterialist ontology recognizes two basically different
|
||
ontological causes, and so space can work together with matter to
|
||
constitute properties, relations, and how they change over time. When
|
||
it comes to explaining the truth of physics, therefore, what
|
||
ontological philosophy is looking for is a description of a more
|
||
specific essential nature of matter and space such that, when space
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||
contains all the bits of matter, objects have physical properties and
|
||
spatial relations which change in the ways described by the basic
|
||
laws of physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
may not be surprising that spatiomaterialism can explain the truth of
|
||
the physics that prevailed at about the end of the 19<sup>th</sup>
|
||
Century, because classical physics afforded an intuitive
|
||
understanding of the laws of physics, as descriptions of how material
|
||
substances move and interact in space as time passes and it assumed
|
||
that space and time are absolute. What cast doubt on the possibility
|
||
of a spatiomaterialist explanation were the revolutions that spawned
|
||
contemporary physics. In particular, relativity theory seems to deny
|
||
that space and time are absolute, as spatiomaterialism requires.
|
||
Thus, instead of looking for a spatiomaterialist ontology that would
|
||
make relativity theory (and the other laws of physics) true,
|
||
contemporary physicists see the “holy grail of physics” as merely
|
||
discovering a “Theory of Everything,” that is, a single law from
|
||
which all the other laws can be derived.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">At present,
|
||
there are four basic laws of physics, each describing one of the four
|
||
basic forces that are now thought to be at work in nature
|
||
(electromagnetism, the strong force, the weak force, and
|
||
gravitation), and the task that physics has set itself is to discover
|
||
a single law that entails (together with suitable initial and
|
||
boundary conditions) all four of those laws. (That seems possible in
|
||
the case of the first three, because they can all be formulated as
|
||
gauge field theories, but attempts to formulate Einstein’s general
|
||
theory of relativity in a compatible way have been forced to assume
|
||
that there are as many ten or eleven dimensions to space ) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To take the
|
||
goal to be the discover of a single, basic law is to assume that
|
||
efficient-cause explanations are the most basic explanations that
|
||
physics can give. And since ontology itself is not assumed to be
|
||
explanatory, the only entities that contemporary physics takes to be
|
||
real are those referred to by the basic law of physics, that is,
|
||
scientific realism. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Ontological
|
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philosophy, on the other hand, assumes that ontology itself is
|
||
explanatory. That is what led us to recognize that the world is
|
||
constituted by space as well as matter. Thus, we now expect space and
|
||
matter to work together is some way to explain the truth of the basic
|
||
laws of physics and, thereby, the truth of its efficient-cause
|
||
explanations. Indeed, one of the mortgages we took out in order to
|
||
use spatiomaterialism as our ontological foundation in proving
|
||
necessary truths was the promise to give such an explanation of
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||
Einstein’s two relativity theories. We promised to show that even
|
||
though we must take space and time to be absolute, it is possible to
|
||
describe more specific essential natures of matter and space that
|
||
would entail the truth of the special and general theories of
|
||
relativity. But in order to lay the foundation for such a theory, we
|
||
must first describe more specific essential natures of matter and
|
||
space that would entail the truth of the laws of classical physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
attempt to discover the specific essential natures of matter and
|
||
space in the actual world is, however, a project resembling empirical
|
||
science, for it would have to discover which essential nature(s) of
|
||
matter and space afford the <i>best </i>ontological explanation of
|
||
the truths of the basic laws of physics in a spatiomaterial world.
|
||
That is a project of empirical ontology, but nothing so definitive is
|
||
claimed for what is sketched here. All that is required here is proof
|
||
that it is <i>possible </i>to give such an ontological explanation of
|
||
the truth of physical laws, for that will show that spatiomaterialism
|
||
is not falsified by what is found empirical in nature by physics and,
|
||
thus, that ontology affords a new approach to philosophy. Thus,
|
||
though this sketch of how more specific essential natures of matter
|
||
and space explain their truth will show that a deeper explanation is
|
||
possible, it may not be the best ontological explanation of physics.
|
||
That job can be left to ontology as branch of empirical, natural
|
||
science that is more basic than physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Once it is
|
||
recognized that ontological-cause explanation are prior to
|
||
efficient-cause explanations, finding the best ontological
|
||
explanation will become the “holy grail” of the most basic branch
|
||
of natural science. Unlikely as it may seem now, physicists will
|
||
eventually welcome substantivalism about space, because it opens up
|
||
the possibility of a deeper explanation of the world and what
|
||
physicists really want is the deepest possible explanation that can
|
||
be supported by the empirical method. As we shall see, for example,
|
||
it solves the current puzzle about the relationship between
|
||
gravitation and the other three basic forces of nature. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC8" align="right" hspace="5" width="59" height="27" border="0">ontingent
|
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laws: Classical physics. </b></font>We begin with the
|
||
spatiomaterialist ontological explanation of the truth of the basic
|
||
laws of classical physics, including Newton’s laws of motion and
|
||
gravitation and Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism. If they can be
|
||
explained ontologically, we can be confident that the rest of
|
||
classical physics can also be explained ontologically, for the basic
|
||
physical laws are like the axioms of a formal system and the rest of
|
||
physics are like theorems that follow from them. That is basically
|
||
the strategy we used for mathematics, ontologically explaining the
|
||
truth of the axioms of set theory from which the rest of mathematics
|
||
follows. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though
|
||
classical physicists assumed that space is absolute, they did not try
|
||
to give an ontological explanation of the truth of the basic physical
|
||
laws based on space being a substance. They did not recognize the
|
||
validity of ontological explanations, and so they did not think of
|
||
space as a substance that works together with matter to make the
|
||
regularities being described true. Indeed, the action at a distance
|
||
implied by Newton’s law of gravitation must have made any such
|
||
project seem hopeless. Instead, their aim was to formulate physical
|
||
laws mathematically so that they could make quantitatively precise
|
||
predictions of the measurements that would be made in experimental
|
||
situations. That method turned out to be a powerful means of seeing
|
||
into the nature of the world, most spectacularly by revealing the
|
||
nature of micro-processes, though by leaving out the deeper
|
||
ontological explanation, it also made the Einsteinian revolution
|
||
inevitable, as we shall see.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
simplest way to describe the specific natures of matter and space
|
||
that would explain the truth of classical physics is to start by
|
||
cataloging all the different entities mentioned by the laws of
|
||
physics and showing how the forms of matter required to account for
|
||
them all would, by being contained by space and enduring through
|
||
time, make the regularities described by the basic laws of classical
|
||
physics true. That method will leave some aspects of those
|
||
regularities built into the natures that the kinds of matter and
|
||
space that are assumed to constitute a spatiomaterial world like
|
||
ours. But enough of those regularities will be given a genuine
|
||
explanation to show that an ontological explanation of classical
|
||
physics is possible -- and to lay the foundation for explaining how
|
||
the basic laws of contemporary physics could be true in a
|
||
spatiomaterial world.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>F<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC9" align="right" hspace="5" width="47" height="26" border="0">orms
|
||
of matter. </b></font>Though we cannot assume anything about the
|
||
nature of matter or space that contradicts spatiomaterialism, there
|
||
are many different possible spatiomaterial worlds. It is mainly the
|
||
more specific nature of matter that we will be concerned with in
|
||
explaining the truth of classical physics, and in any given
|
||
spatiomaterial world, bits of matter may come in various forms, each
|
||
with different ways of moving, interacting and being related to bits
|
||
of matter in other forms. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Indeed, we
|
||
will have to assume that matter takes qualitatively different forms,
|
||
because the basic laws of classical physics mention entities that are
|
||
as different from one another as material objects and light. Every
|
||
basic entity mentioned by physics as having a location in space and
|
||
time must be explained as matter contained by space.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">A
|
||
promising way to inventory all the basic forms of matter required to
|
||
explain the laws of classical physic ontologically is to take as our
|
||
working hypothesis that what is conserved according to the principles
|
||
of the conservation of mass and energy is the <i>quantity </i>of the
|
||
matter contained by space. Conservation of mass and energy is one of
|
||
the most basic principles of contemporary physics, and this
|
||
ontological thesis is a plausible interpretation of it. Indeed, when
|
||
the principle was first recognized by physics, it was heralded as
|
||
empirical confirmation of the traditional materialist view that
|
||
physical processes are made up of substances that endure through
|
||
time. Let us, therefore, take it as our working hypothesis.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
principle of the conservation of mass and energy holds that in any
|
||
closed or isolated region of space, there is a certain quantity of
|
||
mass and energy that never changes, regardless what happens there.
|
||
That quantity could be the total quantity of matter, for that
|
||
hypothesis would explain two aspects of the principle. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">First,
|
||
since matter is a substance, it neither comes into existence nor goes
|
||
out of existence as time passes, and thus, it is conserved. Hence,
|
||
the quantity of mass and energy could be the quantity of matter. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Second, the
|
||
principles of local motion and local action explain why the quantity
|
||
of matter does not change under the conditions described by the
|
||
principle of conservation of mass and energy. If the only way that
|
||
bits of matter can change location is by motion, they cannot change
|
||
their location from inside the closed or isolated region to outside,
|
||
or vice versa, unless they cross the boundary, and that is excluded.
|
||
Nor can bits of matter outside the closed region affect what happens
|
||
to the bits of matter inside, since that would involve action at a
|
||
distance, contrary to the principle of local action (unless something
|
||
moved across the boundary between inside and outside to mediate the
|
||
force, which is excluded). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Let us set
|
||
aside the peculiar effects that bits of matter may have on one
|
||
another that are mediated by space itself, since they are not
|
||
relevant to classical physics. As we shall see, there are always such
|
||
effects crossing the boundaries, but they do not violate this
|
||
conservation principle, because, as it turns out, they carry neither
|
||
energy nor mass. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus, it is
|
||
plausible that the quantity to which classical physics is referring
|
||
in the principle of the conservation of mass and energy is the total
|
||
quantity of matter in closed or isolated regions of space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is, however, one aspect of contemporary physics that is relevant at
|
||
this point in our argument. Though mass and energy were thought to be
|
||
conserved separately in classical physics, Einstein discovered, as a
|
||
consequence of his special theory of relativity, the famous equation
|
||
connecting them (<i>E=mc</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>). That is further
|
||
evidence that mass and energy are just different forms of the same
|
||
basic material substance, because if they were different forms of
|
||
matter, we would expect them to be commensurable. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Indeed, the
|
||
suggestion that they are basically the same stuff has turned out to
|
||
be true, for there are actual physical processes in which they are
|
||
converted into one another, most spectacularly in the nuclear
|
||
reactions used in nuclear weapons (fission and fusion). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
conservation of mass and energy is now seen as a consequence (or
|
||
presupposition) of the basic laws of contemporary physics. It is a
|
||
way of formulating what is called a “symmetry” about those laws,
|
||
that is, something that is invariant as other things change. But that
|
||
it to treat it formally, as a basic symmetry principle of
|
||
contemporary physics, and here, it will be interpreted ontologically,
|
||
as describing an aspect of the world that is caused by the permanence
|
||
of the matter that coincides with space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Furthermore,
|
||
the conversion between mass and energy will be assumed here in order
|
||
to explain the various forms of matter ontologically, quite apart
|
||
from explaining any of the phenomena covered by Einstein’s special
|
||
theory of relativity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
assumption that all the forms of mass and energy described by physics
|
||
are various forms of matter that coincide with space is just a
|
||
working hypothesis. It will serve my purposes, because it is a simple
|
||
and plausible way of laying out an ontological explanation of the
|
||
laws of physics (classical and contemporary) and, as we shall see, it
|
||
does show that there is at least one way that spatiomaterialism can
|
||
explain them all ontologically. Though it may not be the best
|
||
spatiomaterialist explanation of them, it will suffice to provide an
|
||
ontological foundation for explaining the global regularities,
|
||
because it will show that, for all that physics knows empirically,
|
||
spatiomaterialism could be true. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
ontological explanation of the truth of the principle of conservation
|
||
of mass and energy implies that there are as many different forms of
|
||
matter as there are kinds of mass and energy recognized by physics in
|
||
confirming this principle empirically. And in order to explain the
|
||
truth of the laws of classical physics, we must recognize four (or,
|
||
perhaps, six) qualitatively different forms of matter (with varieties
|
||
of each). They are (1) material objects with rest mass, (2) the
|
||
kinetic energy involved in the motion of rest masses, (3) the energy
|
||
due to gravitation, and (4) the energy due to electromagnetism.
|
||
(Since the latter two each involve two basically different forms of
|
||
energy, as potential energy and as actual waves, they might better be
|
||
counted as two forms of matter each, yielding a total of six.) Let us
|
||
consider briefly how each kind of energy can be explained as a form
|
||
of matter and then we will see how these forms of matter would
|
||
explain ontologically the truth of the laws of classical physics.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Matter
|
||
as material objects with (rest) mass.</b></i> Material objects with
|
||
rest mass are the form of matter that is usually intended when people
|
||
think of matter. Ordinary material objects have definite locations in
|
||
space and can be at rest. The quantity of rest mass in any such
|
||
object (at rest) would be the quantity of matter constituting its
|
||
existence. The endurance of matter through time would then explain
|
||
the principle of the conservation of mass in classical physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Even
|
||
at the altitude of classical physics, however, material objects have
|
||
further properties. Since different material objects cannot occupy
|
||
the same places at the same times, some sort of interaction keeps
|
||
them from doing so, when their motion would otherwise bring them to
|
||
the same location. Such interactions are explained in physics by
|
||
forces that the objects exert one another. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus, we
|
||
will assume that some material objects have electric charges by which
|
||
they can interact with other charged objects. And we will assume that
|
||
every material object exerts a gravitational force by which it
|
||
attracts every other material object. Such forces are, as we shall
|
||
see, aspects of the matter that exists in the form of rest mass, and
|
||
since these aspects involve regularities about change, they are
|
||
dispositional properties. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However,
|
||
since the forces are spread out in the space surrounding where the
|
||
material object with rest mass is located, we must assume that some
|
||
of the matter constituting its existence is somehow spread out in
|
||
space, for otherwise the matter would not be able to explain the
|
||
forces that the material objects exert. But as we shall see, all the
|
||
matter constituting the material object is counted in its rest mass,
|
||
and the object interacts as if all its (rest) mass were concentrated
|
||
at its center, where the material object itself is said to be
|
||
located. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">We
|
||
will also assume, as classical physics did, that ordinary material
|
||
objects, such a billiard balls and cream puffs, are composed of
|
||
simpler material objects, such as “atoms,” the parts of atoms
|
||
(protons, neutrons and electrons), and the parts of parts of atoms
|
||
(such as quarks), though we will also leave the natures of these
|
||
particles and the forces binding them together unexplained until we
|
||
take up contemporary physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
simplest parts of material objects are now known to be particles that
|
||
are quite unlike material objects in various ways, but I will just
|
||
assume that they can also be explained ontologically by
|
||
spatiomaterialism until I show that the truth of quantum mechanics
|
||
can be explained ontologically by spatiomaterialism. (The nature of
|
||
the basic particles of physics is explained ontologically in </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaL16.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Change:
|
||
Cosmology: Basic objects</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.)</span></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Kinetic
|
||
matter.</b></i> All the other forms of matter recognized by classical
|
||
physics are classified as energy by physics, and the most surprising
|
||
implication of this ontological explanation of classical physics is
|
||
probably that kinetic energy is a form of matter, for it means that
|
||
the motion of objects with rest mass is itself a form of matter.
|
||
There is no way to avoid this implication, given our working
|
||
hypothesis, because even in classical physics, kinetic energy can be
|
||
converted into other forms of energy (such a light and potential
|
||
energy), and other forms of energy can be converted into kinetic
|
||
energy. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
hold that kinetic energy is a form of matter is to hold that the
|
||
motion of a material object is constituted by a bit of matter that
|
||
exists in addition to the matter counted in the (rest) mass of the
|
||
material object. This bit of matter must somehow be attached to (and,
|
||
therefore, located with) the matter that makes up the rest mass of
|
||
the material object, and as a result, both must coincide with space
|
||
in a way that carries it and the material object across space as time
|
||
passes. Let us call it “kinetic matter.” More will be said about
|
||
the essential nature of matter in this form when we take up quantum
|
||
mechanics, but for now we need only recognize that quantitatively
|
||
different varieties of kinetic matter would propel objects at
|
||
different speeds or in different directions. Kinetic matter would be
|
||
like a motor, except that instead of consuming energy, it is just a
|
||
bit of matter that endures through time as a substance, and thus, as
|
||
long as it continues to exist in that form, the material object
|
||
continues to move. There are, however, interactions by which kinetic
|
||
matter can be transferred to other material objects, supplemented
|
||
with kinetic matter transferred from other material objects to join
|
||
it, and converted into other forms of matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To treat
|
||
kinetic energy as a form of matter is to depart from the received
|
||
understanding of physics. Kinetic energy is usually treated
|
||
abstractly as just another quantity that is mentioned in the laws of
|
||
physics and must be taken into account in order to predict or control
|
||
what happens in particular situations. When we think of kinetic
|
||
energy as a form of matter, however, we expect to find other
|
||
properties that it must have, and that is what leads to a deeper
|
||
ontological explanation. Kinetic matter must be located, as we have
|
||
assumed, with the rest mass that it is moving, and as we shall see in
|
||
explaining quantum mechanics ontologically, kinetic matter has other
|
||
properties that explain the quantitative relationship between kinetic
|
||
energy and momentum.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
other forms of matter into which kinetic matter can be converted are
|
||
those postulated in order to explain gravitation and
|
||
electromagnetism. Gravitation and electromagnetism are forces that
|
||
material objects exert on one another, and in order to explain the
|
||
distinctive kind of energy involved in each, we will assume that the
|
||
forces themselves are a form of matter. That is, the energy (or
|
||
matter) associated with these forces can exist in two different
|
||
forms, potential or actual (that is, as forces being exerted by
|
||
material objects or as waves of forces that exist independently of
|
||
material objects).</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Potential
|
||
energy.</i> Potential energy is the energy that material objects have
|
||
when they exert forces on one another. Such forces must be a form of
|
||
energy, because they can change how the objects involved are moving. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The amount
|
||
of potential energy that exists in any situation depends on the
|
||
distance across which the forces can continue to accelerate the
|
||
objects involved. When the distance is maximum, the potential energy
|
||
is maximum. But physics sets the maximum quantity at zero. Thus, any
|
||
subsequent state in which some potential energy has been converted
|
||
into kinetic energy (or into some other form of energy) is counted as
|
||
<i>negative </i>potential energy. This is sometimes said to be just a
|
||
mathematical convention, but according to this ontological
|
||
explanation of potential energy, it represents the fact that the
|
||
kinetic energy acquired by objects being accelerated is another form
|
||
of the same matter that previously existed in the form of potential
|
||
energy, that is, as forces being exerted by the material objects. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As
|
||
suggested above, some of the matter making up a material object that
|
||
exerts a force must be conceived as being spread out in the space
|
||
around it as a force field, and that matter is counted as part of its
|
||
rest mass. When potential energy is consumed, objects accelerate,
|
||
changing the positions of the objects that were exerting the forces.
|
||
That alters the force field they jointly impose on space, and the
|
||
result is a reduction in the quantity of matter constituting those
|
||
forces and, thus, the material objects themselves. That is, the
|
||
material objects lose rest mass as their potential energy is consumed
|
||
as kinetic energy, because some of the matter counted in the rest
|
||
mass is converted from constituting a force field to constituting the
|
||
motion of objects with rest mass. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">On this
|
||
ontological theory, therefore, the reason that the potential energy
|
||
that is consumed as kinetic energy is <i>negative</i> (rather than
|
||
just a smaller positive quantity) is that the kinetic energy must be
|
||
subtracted from the rest masses of the material objects that were
|
||
exerting the forces in order to balance the account. The kinetic
|
||
energy is a different form of the same bits of matter that previously
|
||
existed as forces being exerted by the objects. Thus, at the end of
|
||
such a process, when as much kinetic (or other) energy has been
|
||
actualized as possible in the situation, the material objects are in
|
||
a position where their forces cannot accelerate one another and more,
|
||
and the potential energy is some negative quantity. And since the
|
||
total quantity of energy (or matter) involved in the process does not
|
||
change as time passes, the principle of the conservation of mass and
|
||
energy is true. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though the
|
||
equivalence of mass and energy is entailed by Einstein’s special
|
||
theory of relativity, it is assumed here, as I warned earlier, in
|
||
order to explain ontologically the conversion of energy between
|
||
kinetic and potential forms. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
matter that explains potential energy is, therefore, included as part
|
||
of the matter that explains the (rest) masses of material objects,
|
||
and as we shall assume, it is the matter that constitutes the forces
|
||
exerted by the object. Since those forces are spread out in space
|
||
like a field, this is to take the force field to be a form of matter
|
||
that coincides with all those parts of space. Likewise, the strength
|
||
of the force at any point in space will be taken as a measure of the
|
||
“thickness” of the matter coinciding with space at that point.
|
||
And the total potential energy that can be converted to kinetic
|
||
energy (or other forms of energy) depends on the total amount of
|
||
matter in this form that exists along the pathway of the object being
|
||
accelerated (which depends on the length of the path and the
|
||
“thickness” of the matter at each point along the path)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
this ontological assumption will seem empirically unwarranted from
|
||
the point of view of inferring to the best efficient-cause
|
||
explanation. What happens in the relevant situations can be predicted
|
||
with laws describing the forces and descriptions of the locations of
|
||
the kinds of objects involved, without any need to refer to matter
|
||
making up the forces involved. In the received formulations of
|
||
physics, force fields are usually explained as spatially variable
|
||
dispositions, that is, in terms of regularities about how material
|
||
objects of certain kinds would be accelerated, if they were located
|
||
there. But ontologically speaking, there must be a substance located
|
||
there to accelerate the body, and though this description of matter
|
||
in the form of potential energy does not tell us much more about it
|
||
than is described by the relevant laws of physics, it does make us
|
||
look for further properties of such force-field matter. Such
|
||
properties will be described in the ontological explanations of
|
||
Einstein's general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">More
|
||
generally, furthermore, remember that we already have empirical
|
||
reasons for believing that space and matter are substances, and what
|
||
is at issue is whether the laws of physics can be descriptions of
|
||
regular changes in the aspects the basic substances we have
|
||
postulated. This is not an attempt to show that physics must
|
||
recognize matter in these forms in order to predict what will happen,
|
||
but only that it can and, thus, that physics provides no reason do
|
||
doubt that spatiomaterialism is true. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Energy
|
||
as waves of forces.</i> If forces are a part of the matter
|
||
constituting the rest mass of a material object that is spread out in
|
||
space around it, then references to that matter by way of rest masses
|
||
and as negative energy are indirect, and they obscure its real
|
||
nature. Moreover, there is other evidence that forces are a form of
|
||
matter, for such forces can also exist independently of material
|
||
objects (that is, when they are not counted as part of their rest
|
||
masses). They exist as light waves, in the case of electromagnetism,
|
||
and as gravitational waves, though the latter were not recognized
|
||
until Einstein’s discovery of the general theory of relativity. In
|
||
both cases, the waves propagate across space on their own, and since
|
||
they act on objects that they encounter in their paths like forces of
|
||
the appropriate kind, those waves are best explained as matter
|
||
existing in much same form that helps constitute the rest masses of
|
||
material objects, except that it now exist independently of material
|
||
objects. But given the difference between its form as part of the
|
||
rest mass of material object and its form as an independently
|
||
existing wave, we should probably postulate two different forms of
|
||
matter for each kind of energy, gravitational and electromagnetic
|
||
(yielding six forms of matter in all). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Gravitational
|
||
matter.</b></i> The nature of the force of gravity was problematic in
|
||
classical physics, because it was supposed to enable material objects
|
||
to act on one another at a distance, and an adequate ontological
|
||
explanation of it cannot be given here until we take up the
|
||
spatiomaterialist interpretation of Einstein’s general theory of
|
||
relativity. According to Newton, gravity is a universal force of
|
||
attraction among material objects whose strength is in proportion to
|
||
the products of their masses and inversely proportional the square of
|
||
the distance separating them. When material objects (and energy) have
|
||
accumulated at a certain location in space, as in planets and stars,
|
||
the gravitational force is strong enough to make an enormous
|
||
difference in what happens in the surrounding space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">According
|
||
to contemporary physics, the mass that is responsible for gravitation
|
||
is not just the rest masses of the material objects, but also
|
||
includes the mass equivalent of their kinetic energy and
|
||
electromagnetic energy. That is readily explained by this ontological
|
||
theory, if matter in all forms exerts gravitational forces, and it
|
||
will be assumed here. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Without
|
||
giving a deeper explanation of its nature, we can think of the
|
||
gravitational force field as a form of matter that is spread out in
|
||
the space around the center of gravity and has the power where it is
|
||
located to accelerate towards itself other material objects that
|
||
coincide with the same part of space. The strength of the force at
|
||
any location as described by Newton’s law can be thought of as
|
||
varying with the amount (or “thickness”) of matter in this form
|
||
spread out in that part of space. But since the quantity of
|
||
gravitational matter is already counted in the rest mass of the
|
||
matter accumulated at that location, the force field is just an
|
||
aspect of the accumulated matter (or an extrinsic property of the
|
||
matter located there). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though we
|
||
are assuming that the gravitational force field is a form of matter
|
||
in order to explain how classical physics is true, I promise to give
|
||
a deeper ontological explanation of gravitational matter and how it
|
||
is related to other forms of matter in making up the rest mass of a
|
||
material object when we take up contemporary physics. But for now,
|
||
spatiomaterialism leaves us no option but to recognize the
|
||
gravitational force itself as a form of matter in some sense, for
|
||
otherwise there would be nothing to exert the forces involved. Space
|
||
by itself cannot exert gravitational forces, because they vary with
|
||
location, whereas space is uniform throughout. But as we shall see,
|
||
gravitational matter can be a condition of space that is imposed on
|
||
it by the accumulation of matter at a nearby location.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Gravitational
|
||
potential energy is the matter that can be extracted from material
|
||
objects because they are so located relative to one another in space
|
||
that the gravitational forces that they exert on one another can
|
||
accelerate them toward one another. When gravitation accelerates
|
||
material objects to the some location, they acquire kinetic energy,
|
||
and when they collide, some of it may be turned into other forms of
|
||
energy. Though that means, on this ontological explanation, that the
|
||
material objects involved have less rest mass than they did when they
|
||
were still attracting one another across the distance separating
|
||
them, there is no violation of the principle of the conservation of
|
||
mass and energy, because the missing rest mass is now counted as the
|
||
kinetic (and other forms) of energy of the objects at the center. The
|
||
reason that classical physics does not recognize that the rest masses
|
||
of the material objects at the center of gravitation have become less
|
||
than they were before they accumulated there is that it assumes that
|
||
any potential energy that is less than the maximum possible is a
|
||
negative quantity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In
|
||
particular, it is possible to hold that the kinetic (and other forms
|
||
of) energy that material objects acquire as they accelerate toward
|
||
one another comes from the gravitational matter that was spread out
|
||
in the space between them, because the motions of the objects so
|
||
alters the force field between them that less gravitational matter is
|
||
required for them to exert a gravitational force on one another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The total
|
||
matter, both rest mass and forms of energy, accumulated at the center
|
||
of gravitation determines the strength of the gravitational field
|
||
around that center, and the field is stronger than it was when the
|
||
material objects were still separated, even though some gravitational
|
||
matter has been converted to kinetic (and other forms of) energy,
|
||
because the accumulation of bits of matter at the same location makes
|
||
their gravitational fields coincide more completely with the same
|
||
parts of space, so that the gravitational matter at any location in
|
||
the field they jointly impose on space is spread more thickly. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
gravitational matter is just part of matter counted in the rest mass
|
||
of a material object, gravitational matter can also exist
|
||
independently, as gravitational waves. But we can leave that until we
|
||
take up the ontological explanation of Einstein’s general theory of
|
||
relativity. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Electromagnetic
|
||
matter.</b></i> The electric force is another kind of force that we
|
||
will assume that material objects can exert. It has a more
|
||
complicated structure than gravity, because material objects can
|
||
exert two opposite electric forces, positive and negative, and in
|
||
either case, the electric force interacts with another force, the
|
||
magnetic force. How material objects interact by these forces is what
|
||
is described by Maxwell’s laws, and they will be explained in more
|
||
detail later. For now, let me merely suggest how electric forces can
|
||
be explained as a form of matter, by analogy with gravitational
|
||
matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Material
|
||
objects that exert an electric force are said to have an electric
|
||
charge, either positive or negative. In order to explain
|
||
ontologically how Maxwell’s laws are true, we will assume that the
|
||
matter making up such a material object coincides with space in a way
|
||
that makes its total rest mass seem to have a determinate location at
|
||
the center even though some of its constituent matter is spread out
|
||
around it like a force field. Since the strength of the forces in
|
||
this field fall off in proportion to the square of the distance from
|
||
the center, their strength at any point can also be explained as the
|
||
“thickness” of the electromagnetic matter spread out in that part
|
||
of space, though it must have a more complex structure to explain the
|
||
direction of the force, because it depends on the sign of the charge
|
||
and its motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
electromagnetic matter making up the electric field is already
|
||
counted as part of the rest mass of the material object in balancing
|
||
the mass and energy books. Thus, the electric field is actually an
|
||
aspect of the material object, that is, an extrinsic property of the
|
||
material substance that has the electric charge. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Electromagnetic
|
||
matter in this form is electrical potential energy, because the force
|
||
field can accelerate material objects affected by it, namely, other
|
||
material objects with electric charges. Like gravitational potential
|
||
energy, electromagnetic matter is converted to kinetic (or other
|
||
forms of) energy, and such conversions change the rest masses of the
|
||
objects exerting the electric forces appropriately, because material
|
||
objects are actually either acquiring or losing matter. But once
|
||
again, the changes in rest mass may not be recognized as such,
|
||
because any amount of potential energy less than the maximum possible
|
||
is counted as a negative quantity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the case of electromagnetism, the interaction of electric forces with
|
||
magnetic forces makes it necessary to recognize that matter of
|
||
basically the same kind can also exist independently of material
|
||
objects as waves, such as ordinary light. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">When these
|
||
two forces are coupled, as described below, they propagate across
|
||
space as a wave of electric and magnetic forces. Since those forces
|
||
interact with charged objects in much the same way as the electric
|
||
(or magnetic) forces exerted by material objects directly,
|
||
electromagnetic waves are basically another form of electromagnetic
|
||
matter. But since the electric (and magnetic) forces exerted by
|
||
charged material objects directly are so different from
|
||
electromagnetic waves, it is probably best to think of
|
||
electromagnetic matter as existing in two different forms. In one
|
||
form, its quantity is included in the rest masses of the objects (and
|
||
the negative potential energy of the situation), and in the other
|
||
form it is added to the rest of the mass and energy in calculating
|
||
the total quantity that does not change over time in a closed or
|
||
isolated system. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Electromagnetic
|
||
energy is not portrayed as mere <i>waves </i>in contemporary physics.
|
||
There are two reasons, one that we will accept in the end and one
|
||
that we won’t. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The first
|
||
reason is that electromagnetic waves are now known to have a
|
||
particle-like nature, which has given them the name “photons.”
|
||
The discovery of their particle-like nature is at the very foundation
|
||
of quantum mechanics, and it will not be disputed here. We shall see
|
||
how spatiomaterialism can explain their particle-like when we take up
|
||
the ontological explanation of quantum mechanics. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The second
|
||
reason for avoiding the notion of electromagnetic waves is that the
|
||
notion of waves requires a substratum or medium in which the waves
|
||
occur, such as the water in which ocean waves occur and the air in
|
||
which sound waves occur. In classical physics, electromagnetic waves
|
||
were thought to occur in the “luminiferous ether,” which was
|
||
assumed to be at rest in absolute space. But when absolute space was
|
||
rejected with the rise of relativity theory, the notion that light
|
||
propagates in such a medium was rejected with it. Spatiomaterialism
|
||
entails, however, that space and time are absolute, and so we do not
|
||
have that reason for denying the reality of the ether. And since our
|
||
reason for accepting absolute space and time is that space is a
|
||
substance (not merely a way of thinking about references to locations
|
||
and times in the equations of physics, as classical physics did), we
|
||
have the option of explaining the ether ontologically, that is, as an
|
||
aspect of space itself. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In other
|
||
words, we will take the motion of electromagnetic waves to exhibit an
|
||
aspect of the nature of space. Much the same is true of any form of
|
||
matter, because the properties of any bit of matter are an aspect of
|
||
something constituted jointly by the bit of matter and the part of
|
||
space with which it coincides. But in the case of electromagnetic
|
||
waves, we will hold that their velocity, that is, the velocity of
|
||
light, manifests a basic aspect of the nature of space (what will be
|
||
called the “inherent motion” of space or the “ether”). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
may seem that there are other kinds of energy, besides kinetic energy
|
||
and the energy that is due to electromagnetism and gravitation,
|
||
recognized in classical physics, but they all turn out in the end to
|
||
be reducible to these basic forms. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Chemical
|
||
energy, for example, is a form of potential electromagnetic energy
|
||
that depends on how charged particles are configured in atoms and
|
||
molecules. Heat turns out to be the kinetic energy in the random
|
||
motion of the smallest material objects. Kinetic energy can also be
|
||
stored internally in molecules as vibrations of parts of atoms. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
are, of course, other forms of energy associated with the short range
|
||
forces that are involved in the constitution of more basic material
|
||
objects, such as the strong forces exerted by protons and neutrons
|
||
(or the color forces exerted by quarks) and the weak forces that are
|
||
apparently involved in the constitution of quarks and electrons (and
|
||
show up observationally in radioactive decay). But we are leaving
|
||
them aside until we take up contemporary physics, taking the internal
|
||
structure of material objects with rest mass for granted. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
reason we are taking all these kinds of mass and energy to be forms
|
||
of matter is that they can be converted into one another without
|
||
changing the total mass and energy in the region, that is, because
|
||
the total mass and energy is conserved. Electromagnetic waves
|
||
interacting with charged particles can convert them into kinetic
|
||
energy. But this ontological explanation of classical physics takes
|
||
the conversion between potential and kinetic energy to be an instance
|
||
of the convertibility of mass and energy into one another. How these
|
||
forms of mass and energy are converted into one another is described
|
||
by the basic laws of physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
hold that these kinds of mass and energy are basically different
|
||
forms of matter which move and interact in the ways described by the
|
||
laws of physics is to hold that matter has a temporally complex
|
||
nature. What is assumed about the essential nature of matter must
|
||
include how each kind moves and interacts, including how they change
|
||
from one form of matter to another. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">However,
|
||
spatiomaterialism opens up the possibility of a deeper ontological
|
||
explanation of how these forms of matter are related to one another,
|
||
which might explain how they can be converted into one another. Since
|
||
ontological philosophy takes space to be a substance, it may be
|
||
possible to describe the essential nature of matter in a way that
|
||
makes it possible to explain ontologically why it takes these
|
||
different forms by <i>how </i>generic matter coincides with space and
|
||
other bits of matter. That is to suppose that the same material
|
||
substance could have the properties defining any special form
|
||
depending on its current relationship to space (and, perhaps, other
|
||
bits of matter at its location).</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">For
|
||
example, if there were a geometrical aspect to generic matter,
|
||
differences in the forms mentioned above (or some of them) might have
|
||
an intelligible ontological explanation as different ways in which
|
||
generic matter engages with the geometrical structure of space. An
|
||
explanation of the nature of some forms of matter along these lines
|
||
will be suggested by a theory about the nature of matter that will be
|
||
offered as an ontological explanation of the truth of quantum
|
||
mechanics, and it will explain the simplest particles recognized by
|
||
physics (in </span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US">Basic
|
||
Objects </span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">under
|
||
</span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/LoOtkCaLeCos.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Cosmology</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">under
|
||
</span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US">Change</span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.)
|
||
It illustrates a research project that would be promising, if
|
||
ontological philosophy is on the right track. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="HistCmt" align="right" hspace="5" width="149" height="22" border="0">o
|
||
explain the truth of the laws of physics by postulating a kind of
|
||
material substance that can change from one form to another with
|
||
different essential properties is to make the forms of matter similar
|
||
to Aristotle’s basic substances. Aristotle believed that the
|
||
simplest kinds of substances (earth, air, fire and water) could be
|
||
converted into one another, for example, as fire gives its form to
|
||
other substances, such as wood, changing its essential form to fire.
|
||
As the essential properties (or essential form) of the substances
|
||
change, the substratum (or material cause) was supposed to endure
|
||
unchanged. There is, however, a difference. Spatiomaterialism does
|
||
not assume, as Aristotle did, that (essential) forms of matter and
|
||
their substratum are basic principles. Spatiomaterialism is a variety
|
||
of materialism, in Aristotle’s sense, because it denies that
|
||
individual substances necessarily involve his two principles (or
|
||
ontological causes), substratum (material cause) and essential form.
|
||
Bits of matter are independent substances, and their capacity to
|
||
change from one form of matter to another is just part of the
|
||
essential nature of material substance. However, since
|
||
spatiomaterialism does recognize another basic kind of substance,
|
||
besides matter, with which it coincides, it is possible that those
|
||
regularities have a deeper ontological explanation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Leaving
|
||
aside for now deeper ontological explanations of these forms of
|
||
matter, our project here is to show that classical physics can be
|
||
explained ontologically by spatiomaterialism. That is to explain the
|
||
truth of the laws of classical physics by their correspondence to
|
||
aspects of a spatiomaterialism world, and it will be accomplished
|
||
here by assuming that the bits of matter that coincide with space
|
||
have these basic forms: <i>material objects with rest mass</i>,
|
||
<i>kinetic matter</i>, <i>gravitational matter </i>(as part of the
|
||
matter making up objects with rest mass) and <i>electromagnetic
|
||
matter </i>(both as part of the matter making up material objects
|
||
with electric charges and as electromagnetic waves). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
laws to be explained are Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation as
|
||
well as Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism. That will suffice to
|
||
show how the physical properties mentioned by the basic laws of
|
||
classical physics can be aspects of these forms of matter, and it
|
||
will explain the regularities among them as temporal aspects of a
|
||
world constituted by such substances enduring through time. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Since
|
||
what is at issue is the correspondence between these laws and aspects
|
||
of substances, what is crucial is not the quantitative aspects of
|
||
those laws, which are generally the focus of attention in physics,
|
||
but how those quantities can be explained ontologically by substances
|
||
of the kind postulated by spatiomaterialism. I will describe how
|
||
aspects of these forms of matter would explain the properties
|
||
mentioned by the laws of physics, and I will show that they can
|
||
explain the quantitative relationships among them and how they change
|
||
over time. But I will merely show that the quantities can all have
|
||
the right signs, change in the right directions and have the right
|
||
orders of magnitude. It is not a matter of making any new,
|
||
quantitatively precise predictions of what will happen, because any
|
||
more precise quantitative correspondence can be made to come out
|
||
right simply by making the right assumption about the essential
|
||
nature of matter. It is enough to explain them ontologically.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Not
|
||
every aspect of those physical laws will be given a genuine
|
||
ontological explanation. But enough will be explained to show that it
|
||
is possible for spatiomaterialism to explain the truth of classical
|
||
physics. That will put us in a position to show how spatiomaterialism
|
||
can also explain the truth of contemporary physics, both relativity
|
||
theory and quantum mechanics. We begin by sketching an ontological
|
||
explanation of Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation and then
|
||
take up Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>N<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC10" align="right" hspace="5" width="53" height="24" border="0">ewton’s
|
||
laws of motion. </b></font>Newton’s laws of motion are remarkably
|
||
simple. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">First
|
||
law of motion: “Every body continues in its state of rest, or of
|
||
uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that
|
||
state by forces impressed on it.” </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Second
|
||
law of motion: “The change of motion is proportional to the motive
|
||
force impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in
|
||
which that force is impressed.”</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Third
|
||
law of motion: “To every action there is always opposed an equal
|
||
reaction; or, the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are
|
||
always equal, and directed to contrary parts.” </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Law
|
||
of gravitation: material objects always attract one another in
|
||
proportion to the product of their masses and inversely as the square
|
||
of the distance separating them.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Newton’s
|
||
laws describe how material objects move and interact, and since we
|
||
postulate matter in the form of material objects with rest mass, we
|
||
need only see how the regularities described by Newton’s laws of
|
||
motion would be explained on the assumption that kinetic energy and
|
||
potential energy are forms of matter as well. That requires making
|
||
further assumptions about the specific essential natures of these
|
||
forms of matter and about space, but as we shall see, it affords
|
||
genuine, even illuminating, ontological explanations of some aspects
|
||
of classical physics.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">According
|
||
to our working hypothesis, the motion of a material object with rest
|
||
mass is due to the kinetic matter attached to it. The kinetic matter
|
||
must coincide with the same part of space as the material object
|
||
itself, but in a way that that moves the material object across space
|
||
as time passes. Each speed and direction of motion for any given
|
||
material objects would involve a (quantitatively) different variety
|
||
of kinetic matter (which could be explained ontologically by aspects
|
||
of how kinetic matter coincides with space, such as its direction and
|
||
quantity). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Newton’s
|
||
first law of motion. </b></i>Newton’s first law is an immediate
|
||
consequence of this ontological assumption about kinetic matter.
|
||
Since the kinetic matter that makes the material object move is
|
||
itself a substance that endures through time with the same essential
|
||
nature, the object in motion will continue moving at the same speed
|
||
and in the same direction (unless it interacts with another bit of
|
||
matter). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What does
|
||
not change according to the first law of motion is called “velocity,”
|
||
because it includes two aspects of the object’s motion, its speed
|
||
and its direction. That is why we assume that, for any given material
|
||
object, each different speed and each different direction requires a
|
||
different variety of kinetic matter. The velocity is not the kinetic
|
||
matter, but just a <i>property </i>of the material object with the
|
||
kinetic matter, that is, an aspect of the substances constituting the
|
||
object with rest mass together with its kinetic matter and how both
|
||
are contained by space. (The three dimensional structure of space
|
||
makes it possible to represent any velocity mathematically as a
|
||
certain speed in each of any three mutually perpendicular directions.
|
||
Quantities that depend on direction in this way are called
|
||
“vectors.”) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Newton’s
|
||
first law must be true, if the motion of objects is due to kinetic
|
||
matter, because all the ways that an object might be thought to
|
||
change its speed or direction on its own are ontologically
|
||
impossible. A change in its motion would require kinetic matter of
|
||
one variety to come into existence and another variety would have to
|
||
go out of existence as time passes, which substances cannot do. Or it
|
||
would require the variety of kinetic matter to change its essential
|
||
nature, which no form of matter can do on its own. Or it would
|
||
require space to contain kinetic matter in a different way at
|
||
different locations, which is not compatible with the uniformity of
|
||
space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
be sure, in order to explain motion as a form of matter that connects
|
||
material objects to space in a certain way, the objects must have an
|
||
<i>absolute </i>velocity, that is, a certain velocity in absolute
|
||
space. That may seem doubtful in contemporary physics, but it is just
|
||
what spatiomaterialism entails about the nature of space and that is
|
||
what is at issue in this ontological explanation of physics.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">N<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image1" align="right" hspace="5" width="149" height="22" border="0">otice
|
||
that the assumption that an object’s velocity is due to its kinetic
|
||
matter solves a problem that motion otherwise poses for any ontology
|
||
that that postulates only substances enduring through time. The
|
||
problem was first posed by Zeno as a paradox about motion. He pointed
|
||
out that, at each moment, an object must be at rest (as we assume by
|
||
holding that nothing exists but the present), and he asked, How is
|
||
motion even possible in that case? If motion is simply how location
|
||
changes as time passes, motion does not really exist, because the
|
||
object always has only one location at each moment as it is present.
|
||
This is not just a puzzle about the continuousness of time and space,
|
||
because holding that to move is just to have a location that varies
|
||
continuously with time leaves a problem about why the moving object
|
||
has a different location the next moment, whereas the object at rest
|
||
does not. What makes the object in motion different from the object
|
||
at rest at each moment? To be sure, it is possible to simply assume
|
||
that the essential nature of all material objects includes the
|
||
temporally complex property of changing locations again, if it did so
|
||
the last moment. That is what materialism does in this case (as in
|
||
the case of every other basic law of physics), and it is not very
|
||
satisfying, because there is nothing to distinguish the moving object
|
||
from the one at rest at any moment except where each was the previous
|
||
moment (which is not something that exists at that moment). If,
|
||
however, motion is constituted by a bit of kinetic matter that exists
|
||
in addition to the object with rest mass, then motion is actually a
|
||
substance that endures through time, and thus, what makes the moving
|
||
object at any moment different from an object at rest is something
|
||
that exists at that moment (not just the fact that it has a different
|
||
position the previous moment). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
first law of motion allows for velocity to change when the material
|
||
object interacts with another object, and given the forms of matter
|
||
we are postulating, the only way that a material object can change
|
||
velocity is for kinetic matter to be transferred to it or from it or
|
||
both. Somehow the object must come to have a different variety of
|
||
kinetic matter attached to it. That is basically what interactions do
|
||
to objects with rest mass. In such an interaction, Newton’s laws
|
||
say that the object is subject to a force, and our working hypothesis
|
||
implies that the exertion of a force on the object somehow transfers
|
||
kinetic matter to and/or from it. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Interactions
|
||
are something that we expect, given our assumption that material
|
||
objects are a form of matter that cannot occupy the same place at the
|
||
same time, because if they can move, they can move to the same
|
||
location at the same time and something must keep them from being
|
||
contained by the same part of space. The simplest kind of interaction
|
||
is a collision of material objects that is elastic, that is, in which
|
||
nothing changes but the velocities of the material objects that
|
||
collide. Though collisions of ordinary material objects are mediated
|
||
by electromagnetic interactions, we can, for present purposes,
|
||
abstract from the nature of the forces and consider only what happens
|
||
when material objects collide. We know that they exchange kinetic
|
||
matter. But we do not know how much is transferred or what effect it
|
||
has on their velocities. The regularities about such transfers of
|
||
kinetic matter are what is described by Newton’s second and third
|
||
laws of motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Newton’s
|
||
second law of motion.</b></i> Newton’s second law holds that the
|
||
exertion of a force is what changes the velocity of a material
|
||
object. Since forces are exerted by other objects, the force on any
|
||
object has some direction or other, which determines in some way the
|
||
direction in which the object’s speed changes. It also has a
|
||
determinate strength and its action on the object has a certain
|
||
quantity. But how much an object’s speed changes in the direction
|
||
of any given force depends on another factor, its rest mass, or the
|
||
quantity of matter embodied in it. That is, what changes when a
|
||
material object is subject to a force is its momentum, or the <i>product
|
||
</i>of its velocity and its rest mass. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the case of material objects composed of many parts with the same
|
||
rest mass, our working ontological hypothesis offers an explanation
|
||
of the relevance of rest mass in determining the change of velocity.
|
||
In order for the composite object to move in a certain way, each of
|
||
objects of which it is composed (each “atom,” if you will) must
|
||
move in the same way (assuming that the parts have unchanging spatial
|
||
relations to one another). Since each part must be moved across space
|
||
by its own bit of kinetic matter, a force can change the velocity of
|
||
the whole only by changing the velocity of each part in the same way.
|
||
Thus, the change in velocity caused by a force varies inversely with
|
||
the total rest mass of the material object. It must be spread out
|
||
among all the parts, so to speak. For example, an object with twice
|
||
as much rest mass has half as much change in velocity, if subjected
|
||
to the same force. In other words, what changes is not merely its
|
||
velocity, but its momentum, the product of its velocity and its rest
|
||
mass.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
second law of motion also holds in the case of elementary material
|
||
objects with different rest masses. But without a deeper ontological
|
||
explanation of the nature of kinetic matter and material objects with
|
||
rest mass, that regularity can only be assumed as part of the
|
||
essential natures of those forms of matter.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Velocity
|
||
is not a measure of the amount of kinetic matter, because the change
|
||
caused by the transfer of kinetic matter to or from an object depends
|
||
on its rest mass. But it might seem that momentum is the measure of
|
||
kinetic matter, since it is what changes when kinetic matter is
|
||
transferred. However, momentum, like velocity, is just a property of
|
||
the material object with kinetic matter, and we can begin to see why
|
||
by considering the third law of motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Newton’s
|
||
third law of motion</b></i><b>. </b>Newton’s third law describes a
|
||
more inclusive regularity than the second, for it includes the object
|
||
that is the source of the force, describing how it is affected as
|
||
well. This law holds that the action of one object on another is
|
||
opposed by an equal and opposite action of the other object back on
|
||
the first. That is, every action of one object on another is actually
|
||
a symmetrical interaction of the two objects involved. And since what
|
||
the action changes is momentum, this law says that the change in the
|
||
momentum of one object is equal and opposite to the change in
|
||
momentum of the other object. Thus, Newton’s third law of motion
|
||
entails the conservation of momentum. That is, in any interaction,
|
||
the sum of the products of the velocity and mass of all the objects
|
||
involved in the interaction does not change in any direction
|
||
regardless how the objects may interact. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
conservation of momentum may make it seem that momentum must be the
|
||
measure of the total quantity of kinetic matter involved. Suppose,
|
||
for example, that two equally massive objects moving toward one
|
||
another at the same speed were to collide. Given our working
|
||
ontological hypothesis, we might try to understand why the two
|
||
objects rebound from one another by thinking of the interaction as
|
||
each object transferring its kinetic matter to the other, for that
|
||
would also explain why both objects come out with velocities in the
|
||
opposite direction. Each acquires the other object’s kinetic
|
||
matter. And if the objects had different rest masses and different
|
||
velocities, this would even explain how much the velocity of each
|
||
changes. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Momentum
|
||
cannot, however, be the measure of the amount of kinetic matter,
|
||
because it is a quantity that depends on the direction of the motion,
|
||
whereas the quantity of kinetic matter does not. (In other words,
|
||
momentum is a “vector quantity,” whereas kinetic energy, as a
|
||
substance, must be a “scalar quantity,” which does not depend on
|
||
the direction of motion.) To illustrate the problem, suppose that two
|
||
objects colliding with equal and opposite momentums do not rebound
|
||
from one another, but simply come to a stop. The latter is compatible
|
||
with Newton’s third law of motion, because the change in the
|
||
momentum of one is still equal and opposite to the change in momentum
|
||
of the other. Each loses an equal and opposite momentum. Action and
|
||
reaction are symmetrical. But if momentum were the measure of kinetic
|
||
matter, it would mean that their kinetic matter simply goes out of
|
||
existence, for their momentums cancel out. And since that is
|
||
impossible for a substance, momentum cannot be the measure of kinetic
|
||
matter.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It is no
|
||
great surprise, of course, that momentum is not the measure of the
|
||
quantity of kinetic matter on this ontological explanation, for we
|
||
postulated the existence of kinetic matter in the first place in
|
||
order to account for kinetic energy. But the foregoing example does
|
||
bring out the difference between <i>momentum </i>and <i>kinetic
|
||
energy</i>. It is currently explained only mathematically: in
|
||
Newtonian physics, momentum is the product of an object’s rest mass
|
||
and its velocity (<i>mv</i>), whereas its kinetic energy is one-half
|
||
the product of its rest mass and the <i>square </i>of its velocity
|
||
(<i>1/2 mv</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">I<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image2" align="right" hspace="5" vspace="10" width="149" height="22" border="0">t
|
||
is a subtle difference, which was not obvious even to classical
|
||
physicists at first. The difference was not recognized by Cartesians,
|
||
and Leibniz was so struck by kinetic energy being different from
|
||
momentum, or mere motion, that he took the existence kinetic energy
|
||
as evidence of a <i>vis viva</i>, a “force of life” in the
|
||
object, which helped inspire his belief that atoms are really
|
||
“monads,” or minds. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
ontological difference between <i>kinetic energy </i>and <i>momentum
|
||
</i>is that the former is the quantity of <i>a form of matter </i>that
|
||
can be attached to objects with rest mass and the latter is a
|
||
quantitative <i>property </i>that material objects have when kinetic
|
||
matter is attached. Momentum is just an aspect of those two kinds of
|
||
material substances as they are contained by space, an aspect that
|
||
depends on the direction of the motion in space. Newton’s second
|
||
and third laws of motion describe the regularity about how that
|
||
property changes when material objects interact, including the
|
||
conservation of momentum. The kinetic energy is, however, part of the
|
||
substance constituting the object in motion, and so it is conserved
|
||
because it is a substance. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is
|
||
just the beginning of an ontological explanation of the difference
|
||
between kinetic energy and momentum. Though we can see <i>that </i>they
|
||
are different, it does not explain the quantitative relationship
|
||
between them, that is, why kinetic energy varies with the square of
|
||
velocity, while momentum varies with velocity. That can be explained
|
||
only later, when we take up a deeper ontological explanation, the
|
||
quantum theory of matter. There is a more specific nature of kinetic
|
||
matter that entails momentum being related to kinetic energy as the
|
||
velocity to the square of velocity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the foregoing case, where colliding objects with equal and opposite
|
||
momentums simply stop, the collision is not elastic, that is,
|
||
something changes besides the motion of those objects. Instead of
|
||
dropping out of existence, the kinetic energy is converted into
|
||
another form of matter (such as potential energy in new forces being
|
||
exerted among its parts) or transferred to other objects (such as the
|
||
kinetic energy of the parts of the objects, that is, becoming heat). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Newton’s
|
||
law of gravitation</b></i><b>. </b>Newton’s law of gravitation
|
||
holds that material objects exert an attractive force on one another
|
||
that is proportional to the product of their (rest) masses and
|
||
inversely proportional to the distance between them. But since each
|
||
object exerts such a force on the other, an object must have a
|
||
gravitational field around it even when there are no other objects in
|
||
its neighborhood. There is, in other words, a gravitational force at
|
||
every location in the space around the material object. Those forces
|
||
are radially symmetric around the object itself, and their strength
|
||
declines with the square of the distance from the object. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
gravitational field is explained ontologically by postulating matter
|
||
in the form of gravitational matter, which is spread out in space
|
||
around the material object exerting the gravitational force, though
|
||
its quantity is included, along with matter is some other (yet to be
|
||
described) forms, as the rest mass of the material object. This
|
||
affords an obvious ontological explanation of many of the aspects
|
||
described by Newton’s law of gravitation. Gravitational forces are
|
||
directed toward the object, since that is the center of the rest mass
|
||
of the material object that spreads gravitational matter out in
|
||
space. The forces are radically symmetric, because the object is
|
||
located in three dimensional space. And the strength to the force
|
||
falls off with the square of the distance, because that is how fast
|
||
space spreads out sideways as you move away from the source of the
|
||
force. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The force
|
||
of gravity is not given an ontological explanation in classical
|
||
physics. Instead, it is usually described as just a disposition at
|
||
each point in space to exert a precise, mathematically described
|
||
force on any material object (with a certain mass), if it were
|
||
located at that point. Talk of “dispositions” is a way of
|
||
predicating regularities of objects as if regularities were just
|
||
properties of the objects. But that is to leave those regularities
|
||
unexplained. There is no alternative in classical physics, because it
|
||
assumed that gravity involves action at a distance (which is
|
||
implicitly to deny the reality of the space across which it is
|
||
supposed to act). Talk of gravitation as a disposition is a way of
|
||
being skeptical about the reality of such forces as anything beyond
|
||
their effects. This ontological problem was eliminated by Einstein’s
|
||
general theory of relativity, and that discovery is what we are
|
||
anticipating by including gravitational energy as a form of matter in
|
||
this explanation of the truth of classical physics.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Gravitational
|
||
matter helps explain the truth of the principle of the conservation
|
||
of mass and energy, however, only by being counted as a negative
|
||
quantity, that is, as potential energy. The maximum quantity of
|
||
potential energy is zero, because according to our our ontological
|
||
explanation of that accounting practice, potential energy is actually
|
||
part of the matter that is already counted in the rest mass of the
|
||
material object whose forces are a potential source of kinetic
|
||
energy. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This theory
|
||
calls for a deeper explanation of how the matter appears both as a
|
||
material object, with a definite location and rest mass, and at the
|
||
same time as force field spread out in the space around that center
|
||
of mass. We will consider such a theory later, but for now, we must
|
||
simply recognize that the rest mass includes both forms of matter.
|
||
And we can use the notion of gravitational potential energy to
|
||
illustrate further the puzzling relationship between momentum and
|
||
kinetic energy. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Gravitational
|
||
forces exist as fields in which forces are exerted continuously over
|
||
time and material objects change momentum continuously as they move
|
||
through them. The way in which material objects interact by
|
||
gravitational forces can be described as a conversion between
|
||
potential and kinetic energy, and since such conversions are also a
|
||
way of explaining the interaction of material objects by electric and
|
||
magnetic forces, I will describe some of its features by considering
|
||
what happens to a ball thrown upwards in a (nearly) constant
|
||
gravitational field, such as near the surface of the earth.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The ball
|
||
has an initial momentum when it leaves the hand that is proportional
|
||
to its upward velocity. But since its momentum is constantly
|
||
decreasing as the result of the constant downward gravitational force
|
||
on it, there is a point at which the ball comes to a stop and starts
|
||
falling again, after which its downward velocity increases until we
|
||
catch it. The ball had kinetic energy when it left our hand, but at
|
||
the top of its trajectory, it has lost all its kinetic energy. And by
|
||
the time we catch it, the ball has regained kinetic energy. Since
|
||
kinetic energy is a form of matter, it never simply goes out of
|
||
existence or comes into existence, but merely changes form. It is
|
||
converted into potential energy, which the ball has because it is
|
||
located in a way that enables the gravitational force to accelerate
|
||
it over some distance, that is, can acquire kinetic energy from those
|
||
forces as the object moves through the gravitational force field. If
|
||
we think of it ontologically, we see the ball losing kinetic matter
|
||
as it rises, but since the distance across which the gravitational
|
||
force can accelerate the ball increases, it gains potential energy
|
||
(which increases the rest masses of both ball and earth). And when it
|
||
falls, it loses potential energy (decreasing rest masses) and
|
||
acquires kinetic energy. Since the ball has lost all its kinetic
|
||
energy at the top of its trajectory, when it is at rest, its
|
||
potential energy at that point must be equal to its kinetic energy at
|
||
the beginning and end of its trip. The potential energy depends on
|
||
two factors, the force exerted by the earth on the ball and the
|
||
ball’s location in that force field. Both are needed to accelerate
|
||
the ball and give it kinetic energy, and since the force is nearly
|
||
the same at every location, the potential energy turns out to be
|
||
proportional to the height to which it rises, that is, to the
|
||
distance it can fall in the (constant) gravitational field. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This allows
|
||
us to see, once again, the difference between momentum and kinetic
|
||
energy. How much faster would we have to throw the ball upward in
|
||
order for the point at which its stops and starts falling again to be
|
||
twice as high? It is not necessary to double its velocity, as we
|
||
would find if we tried. Instead, the initial velocity needs to be
|
||
increased only by the square root of two (or about 1.4). The reason
|
||
is that the ball consumes kinetic energy in rising to a certain
|
||
height in the gravitational field, not momentum, and since kinetic
|
||
energy varies with the square of the velocity, it is not necessary to
|
||
double the initial velocity to double kinetic energy). (Likewise the
|
||
time it takes will also increase only by a factor of the square root
|
||
of two, since gravity changes its momentum at the same amount each
|
||
unit of time and the amount of momentum to be changed is only
|
||
increased by the square root of two.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
conversion between kinetic and potential energy is basic to classical
|
||
physics, though the quantities become more complex when we take into
|
||
account that gravitational forces are not constant, but have a
|
||
strength that varies inversely with the distance from the center of
|
||
gravity. But we need not consider all the complexities of the
|
||
quantitative relations (though these ontological causes must be able
|
||
to explain them in the end), because we are merely trying to see what
|
||
is involved in an ontological explanation of the basic laws of
|
||
classical physics. We have seen how such ontological causes would
|
||
make Newton’s laws of motion true, and spatiomaterialism is not
|
||
trivial, like materialism, considering that it implies the existence
|
||
of kinetic matter (and begins, at least, an explanation of the
|
||
relationship between momentum and kinetic energy). The one form of
|
||
matter that has not been described is electromagnetic waves, and that
|
||
brings us to the explanation of Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>M<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC11" align="right" hspace="5" width="52" height="26" border="0">axwell’s
|
||
laws of electromagnetism. </b></font>The other basic set of laws
|
||
making up classical physics at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> Century
|
||
were Maxwell’s four laws of electromagnetism. They describe the
|
||
electric and magnetic forces and how they interact, and these forces
|
||
can be explained in much the same way as gravitation, that is, as a
|
||
form of matter that coincides with space by being spread out spread
|
||
out in space like a field, and yet contained in the rest mass of
|
||
material objects with electric charges. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Electromagnetism
|
||
is more complex than the gravitational force, because there are two
|
||
forces, electric and magnetic, which interact with one another, and
|
||
there are two opposite electric forces that material objects can
|
||
have, positive and negative. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Maxwell’s
|
||
great triumph was to show how the interaction of the electric and
|
||
magnetic forces can couple them in a way that propagates both across
|
||
space at a fixed velocity, that is as electromagnetic waves
|
||
propagating at the velocity of light. Since electromagnetic waves
|
||
exist independently of all the other forms of mass and energy (and,
|
||
thus, the other three forms of matter, on this ontological account),
|
||
there is less room for doubt about these forces being a form of
|
||
matter. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">It
|
||
is now known that electromagnetic interactions mediate all the
|
||
non-gravitational interactions among molecules, among atoms in
|
||
molecules, and even between electrons and protons in atoms. Even the
|
||
elastic collisions that we took for granted in discussing Newton’s
|
||
laws of motion are mediated on the micro level by interactions
|
||
involving both electric and magnetic forces among objects with
|
||
electric charges. But all these interactions involve events with a
|
||
unit-like nature which was unexplained until the discovery of quantum
|
||
mechanics, and we will take them up later (in </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaL15.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Change:
|
||
Quantum mechanics</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.)
|
||
</span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">At
|
||
this point, I will discuss aspects of the regularities described by
|
||
Maxwell’s laws in an order that adds up to an explanation of
|
||
electromagnetic waves, and then I will discuss how spatiomaterialism
|
||
can explain such waves ontologically. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Electric
|
||
charge.</b></i> One of Maxwell’s laws describes the electric forces
|
||
that can be exerted by material objects. When a material object has
|
||
an electric charge, it exerts a radial force surrounding the center
|
||
of rest mass whose strength declines with the square of the distance.
|
||
This is like the force of gravity, except that the electric force
|
||
acts on other objects because of their electric charges, rather than
|
||
their mass. And unlike the gravitational force, the electric force
|
||
can be either attractive or repulsive, depending on whether the other
|
||
object has an opposite or same electric charge, respectively. The
|
||
electric force can give such objects kinetic energy (or become
|
||
another form of energy, such as an electromagnetic wave), and so it
|
||
is counted as potential energy. But once again, the maximum potential
|
||
energy is zero, making it a negative quantity when some of it has
|
||
been consumed. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Spatiomaterialism
|
||
can explain potential electrical energy ontologically as some of the
|
||
matter that is counted in the rest masses of the material objects
|
||
exerting the electric forces. Thus, when potential energy is
|
||
consumed, the rest masses of the charged objects are less. If we
|
||
think of the potential energy as a form of electromagnetic matter
|
||
that is spread out in space around the objects with the electric
|
||
charges, we can see why the quantity of potential energy varies with
|
||
the matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Objects
|
||
with opposite charges attract, and their potential energy is maximum
|
||
when they are far apart from one another, because their electric
|
||
fields more nearly approximate a spheres (of forces declining with
|
||
the square of radius), which requires the maximum quantity of
|
||
electromagnetic matter to constitute them. But when opposite charges
|
||
are next to one another, their electric fields are mostly
|
||
neutralized, and the electric field they jointly set up is deformed
|
||
in a way that requires less electromagnetic matter. In this case,
|
||
their total rest mass is less than if they were independent of one
|
||
another.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Objects
|
||
with like charges repel, and their potential energy is maximum when
|
||
they are close to one another, because instead of neutralizing one
|
||
another, their electric fields oppose one another. Though holding
|
||
them together yields an electric force that is twice as strong as the
|
||
radial force field they jointly set up, additional electromagnetic
|
||
matter is required for the two charged particles to have a force
|
||
repelling them from one another. In this case, their rest masses are
|
||
greater than they would be if the objects were at a distance from one
|
||
another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In either
|
||
case, in the equations describing these situations, the potential
|
||
energy is represented as zero when it is maximum, and thus, what is
|
||
actually a loss of rest mass, which comes from consuming potential
|
||
energy and converting electromagnetic matter into other forms of
|
||
matter, is counted as negative potential energy. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
electric field is also more complex than gravitation in another way
|
||
because of its interaction with the magnetic force. It affects the
|
||
motion of a charged object in an electric field. For example, in an
|
||
electric field is set up by a material object too massive to move
|
||
much, a charged object that is accelerated by it will increase its
|
||
velocity not only in the direction of the force, but also in a
|
||
direction perpendicular to both the electric force and the direction
|
||
of its own motion in the electric field. That is the work of the
|
||
magnetic force. The magnetic force on the charged object is a
|
||
function of its velocity through the electric field as well as the
|
||
strength of the electric field. This effect of electric forces is not
|
||
mentioned in this first law, but is a consequence of another of
|
||
Maxwell’s laws.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>No
|
||
magnetic charges.</b></i> The second law holds that there is no
|
||
material object with a magnetic charge, even though there are
|
||
magnetic forces. A material object with a magnetic charge would have
|
||
a radial force surrounding its center of rest mass which declines
|
||
with the square of the distance. Instead, as it turns out, magnetic
|
||
forces occur in fields in which they are all directed around a closed
|
||
loop, such as a circle. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">According
|
||
to another law, as mentioned above, the magnetic force can arise
|
||
because of the motion of a material object with an electric charge.
|
||
For example, when electric charges are moving in a certain direction
|
||
through space, they set up a magnetic field in which the magnetic
|
||
forces are aligned in a circle around their direction of motion.
|
||
(Such a circular field is set up even when the moving electric
|
||
charges are neutralized locally by opposite charges, as in a wire in
|
||
which a current is flowing, and the net strength of the electric
|
||
force is not changing at any point in space in the surrounding
|
||
space.) </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Coupling
|
||
of magnetic and electric forces.</b></i> The two remaining aspects of
|
||
the regularities described in Maxwell’s equations explain
|
||
electromagnetic waves. One holds that a change in the magnetic field
|
||
causes a circular electric force around the direction of the magnetic
|
||
forces. The other holds that a change in the electric field causes a
|
||
circular magnetic field around the direction of the electric forces.
|
||
In both cases, the strength of the field being set up varies with how
|
||
fast the first field changes (and thus indirectly on the strength of
|
||
the forces). But the directions are reversed (so that an increasing
|
||
electric force causes a magnetic force, while an increasing magnetic
|
||
force causes a electric force in the opposite direction).
|
||
Furthermore, the change in the strength of each force generates a
|
||
force of the other kind that is related to it spatially in a certain
|
||
direction, so that changes in the two forces are coupled as a wave
|
||
that propagates across space at the velocity of light. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">An
|
||
impression of how electromagnetic waves propagate can be gathered by
|
||
considering how the motion of electric charges generates them.
|
||
Consider, for example, a current of electrically charged objects in a
|
||
wire that is changing direction. The current sets up a magnetic force
|
||
circling the wire, but as the electric charges slow down, the
|
||
magnetic force declines (because the rate of change in location of
|
||
the electric charges becomes lower). The decline in the magnetic
|
||
force field causes an electric force that circles it. But the change
|
||
in that electric force causes, in turn, a magnetic field around its
|
||
direction, which is in the opposite direction of the first magnetic
|
||
field. And the change in the second magnetic field then causes an
|
||
electric field, this time in the opposite direction. And finally its
|
||
change causes a magnetic field that is like the one caused by the
|
||
electric charges in the wire, except that it is located a fixed
|
||
distance away from the wire which depends on the velocity of light.
|
||
Thus, the changes in the two forces are coupled in a way that
|
||
propagates across space at the velocity of light as an
|
||
electromagnetic wave. And a steady succession of such waves is
|
||
generated as long as the current in the wire continues to oscillate.
|
||
That is basically how antennas send electromagnetic waves. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Electromagnetic
|
||
waves are a form of energy counted in the principle of the
|
||
conservation of mass and energy, and though the quantitative details
|
||
are not relevant here, we should consider what our working hypothesis
|
||
implies about the nature of "electromagnetic matter." The
|
||
matter involved in these waves is similar to the matter that makes up
|
||
the electric field of a material object with an electric charge,
|
||
except that in the electromagnetic wave, the electric force is
|
||
changing and the changes couple it with a magnetic force that also
|
||
changes. The forces interact in such a way that they go through
|
||
complete cycles, putting them in a position to do the same thing over
|
||
and over again. But the forces they generate are so related to one
|
||
another in space that the wave moves across space over time at
|
||
certain fixed velocity, that is, the velocity of light. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The matter
|
||
constituting electromagnetic waves may not be as different from the
|
||
electromagnetic matter constituting electric charges as this contrast
|
||
makes them appear. According to current quantum theory, material
|
||
objects with electric charges also have a spin angular momentum.
|
||
Since that is a magnetic force, it suggests that the electric charge
|
||
may actually be an electric force that is changing cyclically by
|
||
somehow spinning around an axis. That possibility will lead us to
|
||
speculate (when discussing quantum mechanics and the basic particles)
|
||
that the opposite electric charges (positive and negative) differ
|
||
from one another by being in opposite phases of their cycles wherever
|
||
they are located in space.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Inherent
|
||
motion in space.</b></i> Maxwell deduced the velocity of light in a
|
||
vacuum from measurable constants mentioned in his laws, and since
|
||
classical physics assumed that space is absolute, it could hope to
|
||
explain this implication as the result of electric and magnetic
|
||
forces being exerted on an extremely elastic substance that was
|
||
assumed to be at rest in absolute space. They called it the
|
||
“luminiferous ether” (or “ether,” for short). Since the ether
|
||
was supposed to be a kind of matter, it seemed plausible to explain
|
||
the propagation of electric and magnetic forces mechanically, as an
|
||
interaction between charged particles and the ether, on the model of
|
||
waves of forces in ordinary material objects. That project did not
|
||
work out, but that does not mean that <i>space </i>cannot be playing
|
||
a similar role in the motion of electromagnetic waves.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
recognizing that space is a substance, spatiomaterialism departs from
|
||
classical physics as well as from materialism. Though classical
|
||
physics assumed that space is absolute, it did not take space to be a
|
||
substance that could interact with bits of matter in any way other
|
||
than providing all the locations where they are could move or be
|
||
located. In particular, space was not supposed to affect the motion
|
||
of bits of matter, at least, not in the way other bits of matter can.
|
||
But since spatiomaterialism has independent reasons for believing in
|
||
the existence of space as a substance enduring through time (that is,
|
||
in addition to presentism, reasons deriving from the recognition of
|
||
the validity of ontological-cause explanations and inferring to the
|
||
best ontological-cause explanation of the natural world), it has no
|
||
reason to doubt that space can interact with bits of matter in ways
|
||
that are quite comparable to the interactions of bits of matter in
|
||
space. Thus, spatiomaterialism can use space to explain the velocity
|
||
of light without having to postulate the existence of the ether as an
|
||
additional kind of matter that coincides with space. We can take talk
|
||
about the ether to be referring to an aspect of space as a substance.
|
||
That is what we will do by taking space itself to be the medium of
|
||
light transmission. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
be the medium of light transmission, space must have an aspect by
|
||
which it interacts with electric and magnetic forces and carries them
|
||
across space as electromagnetic waves at a certain velocity. In order
|
||
to explain how space does so, I will assume that there is an
|
||
“inherent motion in space.” By “inherent motion,” I mean a
|
||
further relationship among the parts of space, beyond the geometrical
|
||
relations we have already assumed, which involves their endurance
|
||
through time. We have assumed that the parts of space are particular
|
||
substances, that is, so that each point has an existence that is
|
||
distinct from all the others and each point endures, like any
|
||
substance, through time, never coming into existence nor going out of
|
||
existence. But since only the present moment exists, only one moment
|
||
in the history of each part of space exists, and that moment in the
|
||
history of all the parts of space always occurs at the same time.
|
||
That is how these substances exist together as a world, and it is the
|
||
wholeness of space that relates the bits of matter it contains as
|
||
parts of the same world. This temporal aspect of the nature of the
|
||
parts of space is the ontological foundation for a further
|
||
relationship among the parts of space. What I am calling the
|
||
"inherent motion of space" (as our substitute for the
|
||
"luminiferous ether") is a spatio-temporal relationship
|
||
among the parts of space.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Such a
|
||
temporal aspect to space is not only plausible, but also required by
|
||
the role of space in constituting what happens. If the parts of space
|
||
did not have a spatio-temporal relationship to one another, they
|
||
could not affect one another as time passes. Nor could they enable
|
||
bits of matter to affect one another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
geometrical relations among the parts of space explains which parts
|
||
of space can be affected by any other given part, namely, those
|
||
nearby, then those next to it, and so on. But in order for a change
|
||
occurring at any one part of space to affect another part of space,
|
||
the other part of space must change <i>at a later moment</i>. If the
|
||
effect were immediate, the effect would not be distinct from the
|
||
cause, and they could not act on one another like particular
|
||
substances enduring through time. Space would interact with bits of
|
||
matter as a whole. Thus, let us assume that the rate at which one
|
||
part of space can affect another part of space as time passes is
|
||
finite. That would be a maximum velocity by which one part of space
|
||
can affect other parts of space. I call it the “inherent motion”
|
||
in space in order to make clear that it is a temporal aspect of the
|
||
nature of space as a substance.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">I
|
||
think of the "inherent motion" as a motion sweeping through
|
||
every part of space at the same velocity, both ways in every
|
||
direction possible in three dimensional space, at every moment. This
|
||
is how space is an ontological cause, along with the nature of
|
||
electromagnetic matter, of the velocity of light. That is, we can
|
||
explain the motion of electromagnetic waves as bits of matter (or
|
||
so-called “photons’) being carried along by the inherent motion.
|
||
But there is an inherent motion, even when there are no photons.
|
||
Indeed, it would be happening, even if there were no matter in the
|
||
world. In other words, the inherent motion is an aspect of space as a
|
||
substance. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
postulation of an inherent motion may seem ontologically excessive,
|
||
since all we need to assume is that the parts of space are so related
|
||
temporally, as well as geometrically, that there is a maximum rate at
|
||
which it is possible for what happens to matter at one part of space
|
||
to affect what happens to matter at another parts of space. Thus, it
|
||
may be urged that the inherent motion is not real, but merely the
|
||
velocity of <i>possible </i>effects across space. It is merely a
|
||
spatio-temporal geometry about space, that is, a geometry describing
|
||
how the present moment of any one part of space is related to the
|
||
past or future moments of other parts of space because of the maximum
|
||
velocity with which events can affect one another. Such an account,
|
||
it could be argued, would be a better ontological explanation in the
|
||
end. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though a
|
||
spatio-temporal geometry to space may be a sufficient ontological
|
||
explanation, I will continue to speak of it as the "inherent
|
||
motion in space." I can take this liberty, because I am not
|
||
claiming that the more specific natures of matter and space that I am
|
||
introducing in order to explain the truth of physics are <i>the best
|
||
</i>possible spatiomaterialist ontological explanation of the basic
|
||
laws of physics, only that they are <i>a </i>possible
|
||
spatiomaterialist ontological explanation. That is all that is
|
||
required for ontological philosophy to make the case for using
|
||
spatiomaterialism as the foundation for its argument about necessary
|
||
truths. And I allow myself the liberty of postulating an actual
|
||
inherent motion in space, because that invokes an image (in rational
|
||
imagination) that makes it easy to think about an aspect of the
|
||
essential nature of space that will be central in the following
|
||
explanation of the laws of contemporary physics. I find it preferable
|
||
to “spatio-temporal geometry,” because talk of motion brings out
|
||
vividly the temporal aspect of what might otherwise be seen as a
|
||
static structure (such as spacetime in Einsteinian relativity). And
|
||
it emphasizes that it is always happening everywhere in space,
|
||
connecting the parts of space ontologically in a further way than
|
||
merely having geometrical relations, a way that is central to the
|
||
existence of causal connections among events in the world.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As it turns
|
||
out, nothing turns on the difference between saying that space has a
|
||
an inherent motion and saying that space has a spatio-temporal
|
||
geometry, as long as we recognize that we are talking about an aspect
|
||
of a substance that endures through time and has the opposite nature
|
||
from matter. The motion of electromagnetic waves (or photons) is only
|
||
one manifestation of this aspect of the essential nature of space.
|
||
There will be several others as we proceed, and it will be a somewhat
|
||
more complex aspect of space by the time we are through, variations
|
||
in its velocity at different locations in space. It is easier to
|
||
think about these ontological effects of space by thinking of space
|
||
as having an inherent motion prior to the motion of photons, because
|
||
the picture is spatial imagination is more concrete. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The the
|
||
inherent motion in space is the medium of light transmission, and
|
||
though it may also be called the "ether," as it was in
|
||
Newtonian physics, it is ontologically important to keep in mind that
|
||
it is an aspect of space. The ether was supposed to be an ethereal
|
||
matter that is at rest everywhere in space, and no such thing is
|
||
needed in a spatiomaterial world, because when space is a substance,
|
||
it can interact with bits of matter in much the same way as other
|
||
bits of matter. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It should
|
||
be noted, however, that just as it made sense to speak of being at
|
||
rest in the ether, it will make sense to speak of being at rest
|
||
relative to the medium of light transmission. In either case, it is
|
||
the reference frame in which the one-way velocity of light is exactly
|
||
the same both ways in every direction in three dimensional space. It
|
||
was assumed in Newtonian physics that being at rest in the ether
|
||
would be at rest in absolute space, because they assumed that the
|
||
ether was at rest in absolute space. Though we also assume that there
|
||
is a reference frame that is at rest relative to the light medium, we
|
||
will not assume that it is at rest in absolute space, because in
|
||
order to explain ontologically the truth of the general theory of
|
||
relativity, we will have to assume that the light medium itself can
|
||
have a velocity in space. That will be to hold that that inherent
|
||
motion in space can have a different velocity at different locations.
|
||
But if you prefer, such talk can always be translated into talk about
|
||
the spatio-temporal geometry of space as a substance enduring though
|
||
time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
basic laws of classical physics can, in sum, be explained
|
||
ontologically by postulating various forms in which matter can
|
||
coincide with space as a substance. Those forms of matter are
|
||
<i>material objects with rest mass</i>, <i>kinetic matter</i>,
|
||
<i>gravitational matter</i>, and <i>electromagnetic matter </i>(including
|
||
both matter as electric and magnetic forces and as electromagnetic
|
||
waves). And they explain the truth of the laws of classical physics
|
||
in the sense that a world made of such substances enduring through
|
||
time has aspects (properties, relations and regularities about
|
||
change) that correspond to those laws. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">That is,
|
||
the laws of classical physics are true because they correspond to an
|
||
aspect of the world that has been constructed from our assumptions
|
||
about the basic nature of substances, about space and matter as the
|
||
two opposite kind of basic substances that make up the world, and
|
||
about the specific forms of matter that coincide with space. There
|
||
is, therefore, one way, at least, that a spatiomaterialist ontology
|
||
can make its basic laws true, which shows that spatiomaterialism is
|
||
possible, as far as classical physics is concerned. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Thus,
|
||
we have laid the foundation we will need in order to explain the
|
||
truth of the basic laws of contemporary physics ontologically. The
|
||
first step in that project has already been made by postulating an
|
||
inherent motion in substantival space to explain the velocity of
|
||
light ontologically. In assuming that light has a medium through
|
||
which it is transmitted, it may seem that we are resurrecting the
|
||
"luminiferous ether" of Newtonian physics. But if so, it is
|
||
no longer a strange form of ethereal matter at rest in space, but an
|
||
aspect of space itself. Space itself is the medium of light
|
||
transmission.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC12" align="right" hspace="5" width="82" height="27" border="0">ontingent
|
||
laws: Contemporary physics. </b></font>In the early 20th Century,
|
||
revolutions in physics have made it seem impossible for
|
||
spatiomaterialism to explain the basic laws of physics ontologically.
|
||
There were two revolutions, Einstein’s two relativity theories and
|
||
quantum mechanics. The first led to the belief in spacetime, and the
|
||
second made it seem that processes at the micro-level are
|
||
indeterministic. These new theories were irresistible in physics,
|
||
because they were justified by the empirical method in the same way
|
||
as Newtonian physics had been. They were inferences to the best
|
||
efficient-cause explanations, where the best depends heavily on
|
||
making surprising, quantitatively precise predictions that turn out
|
||
to be true when measurements are made. And both revolutions have been
|
||
extremely fruitful, leading to surprising predictions in new fields. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Two
|
||
theories are involved in the Einsteinian revolution: the special
|
||
theory of relativity, which covers phenomena that occur in material
|
||
objects with velocities approaching that of light, and the general
|
||
theory, which is a more accurate account of gravitational phenomena.
|
||
Together with quantum mechanics, the special theory led to quantum
|
||
field theory, a more accurate account of electromagnetism, which
|
||
included the discovery of spin and positively charged electrons. As a
|
||
gauge field theory, quantum electrodynamics became the model for
|
||
theories about the two short range forces, the so-called weak and
|
||
strong (or color) forces, which are responsible for the composition
|
||
of particles in ordinary material objects, and that has exposed more
|
||
basic particles of nature, such as quarks and neutrinos. Together
|
||
with the observation that the universe seems to be expanding
|
||
(Hubble's law), the general theory is now used to support the big
|
||
bang theory about the origin and expansion of the universe. In sum,
|
||
our understanding of every kind of physical phenomenon has been
|
||
radically enriched by these two revolutions in physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is one way, however, in which these two revolutions do not fit well
|
||
together. It is often characterized as the main theoretical problem
|
||
of contemporary physics. Einstein’s general theory of relativity
|
||
explains gravitation, one of the four basic forces, but it is
|
||
mathematically quite different from the theories describing the other
|
||
three forces (electromagnetism, the color force and the weak force).
|
||
The latter three are formulated as gauge field theories, making it
|
||
possible to fit them together mathematically, but no one has found a
|
||
simple way of connecting them with Einstein’s general theory of
|
||
relativity. Attempts to connect them have led some physicists to
|
||
believe that there are ten or more dimensions to space! </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Notice that
|
||
this theoretical problem in contemporary physics is basically a
|
||
mathematical problem. It derives from the so called "holy grail"
|
||
of physics, which is to discover a single law from which all the laws
|
||
of physics, describing all the basic forces, can be derived. But the
|
||
incompatibility between quantum theory and the theory of gravitation
|
||
is very likely intractable as a mathematical problem. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Physics is
|
||
crying out for a new approach. That is what ontological philosophy
|
||
supplies. The solution to the main problem of contemporary physics is
|
||
an extra benefit of its spatiomaterialist interpretation of
|
||
contemporary physics. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Each
|
||
of the basic revolutions of contemporary physics poses, however, a
|
||
challenge to spatiomaterialism all by itself. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Einstein’s
|
||
two relativity theories pose a challenge to ontological philosophy,
|
||
as we have already seen, because they seem to describe a world in
|
||
which space and time are not absolute. Realism about Einsteinian
|
||
relativity entails the belief in spacetime, which puts time
|
||
ontologically on a par with space: each moment in time is supposed to
|
||
exist alongside every other moment in time, just as each point in
|
||
space exists alongside every other point in space, as equal parts of
|
||
an eternal four-dimensional world. But the belief in spacetime is
|
||
incompatible with spatiomaterialism, because spatiomaterialism holds
|
||
that only the present moment exists and takes space to be one of two
|
||
opposite kinds of substances that endure through time. Thus, unless
|
||
there is a way that Einstein’s special and general theories of
|
||
relativity can be true in a world where space and time are absolute,
|
||
ontological philosophy cannot use spatiomaterialism as the foundation
|
||
for its arguments about what is necessary. Showing how the belief in
|
||
spacetime could be replaced in a spatiomaterial world was one of the
|
||
mortgages we took out in order to make this argument, and now the
|
||
time has come to pay it off. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Quantum
|
||
theory however, may also seem incompatible with spatiomaterialism. In
|
||
addition to its apparent denial of determinism, it seems to deny that
|
||
physical processes are constituted by material substances that
|
||
coincide with space. Quantum mechanics is often interpreted, at
|
||
least, as denying that the smallest entities have definite locations
|
||
and as implying that they behave in ways that are incompatible with
|
||
the principle of local motion and local action. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Quantum
|
||
mechanics is less challenging than Einsteinian relativity, because
|
||
the received interpretation of it (the so-called “Copenhagen
|
||
interpretation, due mainly to Bohr) is more like skepticism about
|
||
ever knowing the real nature of the smallest bits of matter than a
|
||
generally accepted ontological belief about what exists on the
|
||
micro-level that is incompatible with spatiomaterialism. The belief
|
||
in spacetime is incompatible with the belief in absolute space and
|
||
time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is possible, however, for spatiomaterialism to explain the truth of
|
||
both theories. What is more, by explaining their truth ontologically,
|
||
it solves the problem about how gravitation is related to the other
|
||
three forces of nature. This ontological solution to the basic
|
||
theoretical problem of contemporary physics will also provide the
|
||
foundation for more speculative suggestions about cosmology, both the
|
||
basic particles recognized by high energy physics and about the
|
||
origin of the large scale structure of the universe.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Relativity
|
||
theories. </i>The two theories involved in Einsteinian revolution
|
||
will be discussed in sequence. The notion of spacetime was introduced
|
||
with the special theory of relativity as a way of explaining
|
||
measurements made from objects with very high relative velocities,
|
||
and Einstein used it as the basis for his explanation of gravitation.
|
||
In a parallel way, the ontological explanation of spacetime in the
|
||
special theory of relativity will be the foundation for the
|
||
ontological explanation of the role of spacetime in the general
|
||
theory of relativity. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In the case
|
||
of Einstein’s special theory of relativity, it may not be
|
||
surprising that it is possible for spatiomaterialism to explain its
|
||
truth, for even Einsteinians admit that the empirical implications of
|
||
Einstein’s theory could be explained on the assumption that space
|
||
is absolute. It is just a matter of assuming that one of all possible
|
||
inertial reference frames is at absolute rest and explaining the
|
||
appearance that it is not different from the others on the assumption
|
||
that absolute space causes certain distortions in material objects
|
||
that move through it. Such a theory is possible, and it was begun, at
|
||
least, by Newtonian physicists before Einstein first published his
|
||
special theory of relativity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
ontological explanation of Einstein’s general theory of relativity
|
||
may be more surprising, because contemporary physicists apparently do
|
||
not even suspect that it is possible to understand the gravitational
|
||
phenomena discovered by Einstein on the assumption that space and
|
||
time are absolute. The universal acceptance of the special theory of
|
||
relativity and its notion of spacetime as a description of the nature
|
||
of space and time has kept physicists from even considering a very
|
||
simple, intuitively satisfying, ontological explanation of
|
||
gravitation.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
spatiomaterialist special and general theories of relativity that
|
||
result are not ontologically necessary truths, according to
|
||
ontological philosophy, because they do not follow from
|
||
spatiomaterialism, but rather depend on what has been discovered
|
||
empirically about what happens in the world. All that needs to be
|
||
shown is that it is possible for Einstein’s two theories to be true
|
||
in a spatiomaterial world. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Once the
|
||
laws of physics are explained ontologically, the additional
|
||
assumptions that must be made about the nature of matter and space in
|
||
order to explain them will be incorporated into the foundation of
|
||
ontological philosophy as a way of explaining ontologically other
|
||
aspects of the world, such as the global regularities. That is how we
|
||
incorporate the laws of physics into spatiomaterialism. But since
|
||
those further explanations will depend on the more specific natures
|
||
of matter and space assumed here in order to explain the truth of
|
||
classical and contemporary physics, their ontological necessity will
|
||
be only conditional. They hold only of all possible spatiomaterial
|
||
worlds like ours, that is, in which the laws of physics are true. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As it
|
||
happens, however, the spatiomaterialist ontological explanation of
|
||
the truth of classical physics together with its explanation of
|
||
quantum mechanics seem to entail the ontological assumptions that
|
||
have to be made in order to explain the truth of the special theory
|
||
of relativity. If so, the regularities described by Einstein's
|
||
special theory of relativity have a deeper ontological explanation,
|
||
even if they are not unconditionally ontologically necessary. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
should be mentioned, however, that the explanation of the global
|
||
regularities to be given under <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Change
|
||
</font>does not depend on this ontological explanation of the truth
|
||
of contemporary physics. Given that space is a substance, they depend
|
||
only on matter obeying the regularities described by the laws of
|
||
contemporary (and classical) physics. Though we shall make further
|
||
assumption about the nature of space and matter in order to explain
|
||
ontologically the truth of quantum mechanics, the basic objects of
|
||
physics, and the origin of the universe, they are required only to
|
||
show the possibility of spatiomaterialism. They are not relevant in
|
||
explaining the global regularities. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>E<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLStr_01" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="66" border="0">instein’s
|
||
special theory of relativity.</b></font> To explain how Einstein’s
|
||
special theory of relativity can be true in a spatiomaterial world is
|
||
to show that the regularities it describes can be constituted by
|
||
substances of the kinds postulated by spatiomaterialism, that is,
|
||
that it can correspond to aspects of space and matter as substances
|
||
enduring through time.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
addition to the assumptions already made about the forms of matter
|
||
and the inherent motion in space in order to explain the truth of
|
||
classical physics ontologically, further assumptions about the nature
|
||
of space and matter will be needed to explain special relativity.
|
||
They are basically distortions of the kind that Lorentz described in
|
||
fast moving material objects before Einstein’s first paper (time
|
||
dilation and length contraction, though there must be compensating
|
||
changes in masses and longitudinal forces as well), though something
|
||
more must be said about the synchronization of clocks at a distance
|
||
in order to explain the truth of all the predictions of the special
|
||
theory. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the first section, <font face="Arial, sans-serif">A Brief History of
|
||
the Special Theory</font>, I will give a brief history of how
|
||
Einstein’s special theory of relativity was accepted in order to
|
||
show that these distortions in fast-moving objects provide everything
|
||
required to explain why Einstein’s theory is true. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Lorentz
|
||
first described these distortions in order to explain the surprising
|
||
results of the Michelson-Morley experiment, which established that it
|
||
was not possible to measure the absolute rest and motion of a
|
||
material object by measuring the velocity of light relative to it.
|
||
But Lorentz’ theory was rejected in favor of Einstein’s special
|
||
theory of relativity, which took a radically different approach. That
|
||
was not a mistake within physics, because Einstein’s theory was
|
||
superior according to the empirical method of science of physics
|
||
(that is, inferring to the best efficient-cause explanation, or by
|
||
the criteria of predicting and controlling what happens). But
|
||
Einstein’s theory is not the best ontological-cause explanation of
|
||
the phenomena. Indeed, as we shall see when Einstein’s premises and
|
||
conclusions are explained ontologically, even its apparent
|
||
superiority as an efficient-cause explanation rests on an illusion.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the second section, <font face="Arial, sans-serif">The Lorentz
|
||
Distortions</font>, I show how Lorentz explained the undetectability
|
||
of absolute motion or rest and the other distortions that are
|
||
required for all the laws of physics to hold the same way on a moving
|
||
inertial reference frame.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the third section, <font face="Arial, sans-serif">The Symmetry of the
|
||
Lorentz Distortions</font>, I show how Einstein's definition of
|
||
simultaneity at a distance combines with the Lorentz distortions to
|
||
explain the puzzling symmetry about any pair of inertial reference
|
||
frames that is emphasized by Einstein in calling his theory a theory
|
||
of "relativity." This symmetry implies that inertial
|
||
reference frames are empirically equivalent as far as experiments
|
||
that observers on each frame can perform on one another are
|
||
concerned, and as we shall see, it is just an appearance that depends
|
||
on the mis-synchronization of clocks on inertial frames according to
|
||
Einstein's definition and how that combines with the Lorentz
|
||
distortions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the fourth section, <font face="Arial, sans-serif">The Ontological
|
||
Necessity of the Lorentz Distortions</font>, I will argue that
|
||
although the Lorentz distortions are new laws of physics, they have a
|
||
deeper explanation given our ontological explanation of the laws of
|
||
classical physics and a plausible assumption about the nature of
|
||
material objects (which will be justified later as a way of
|
||
explaining the truth of quantum mechanics and what physics now knows
|
||
about the microstructures of material objects). But given our
|
||
assumption about space being the medium of light transmission (that
|
||
space has an inherent motion), that conception of the nature of
|
||
material objects will make it possible to show that the Lorentz
|
||
distortions are not merely ad hoc assumptions made in order to retain
|
||
the belief in absolute space, as is often charged, but rather have a
|
||
necessity about them. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the end, therefore, we will see that, in making the argument for his
|
||
special theory of relativity, Einstein did not discover anything
|
||
about the natural world that cannot be explained by an ontology, like
|
||
spatiomaterialism, that implies that space and time are absolute. But
|
||
what is more, spatiomaterialism explains special relativity in a way
|
||
that removes all the mysteries about spacetime and makes it possible
|
||
to explain ontologically, as well, why Einstein’s general theory of
|
||
relativity is true. That will solve the main theoretical problem of
|
||
contemporary physics, the relationship between gravitation and the
|
||
other basic forces of nature, and it also has some surprising
|
||
implications for cosmology. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>A<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLStr_03" align="right" hspace="5" width="300" height="29" border="0">
|
||
Brief history of Einstein’s special theory of relativity. </b></font>The
|
||
main conclusions of Einstein’s special theory of relativity are the
|
||
Lorentz transformation equations. They are called the “<i>Lorentz</i>
|
||
transformation equations,” because they had already been
|
||
discovered, before Einstein’s first paper, by H. A. Lorentz, taking
|
||
a Newtonian approach. That is where I will pick up the story about
|
||
the Einsteinian revolution in physics, since spatiomaterialism is
|
||
merely following in the footsteps of Lorentz. What I will call the
|
||
four “Lorentz distortions”are sufficient to explain all the of
|
||
the predictions by which Einstein’s special theory of relativity
|
||
has been confirmed. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">L<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADoAAAAPCAMAAACC0iwEAAAAPFBMVEUAAAANDAkcGBMqJR04MSZGPjB+AABjV0NxY01/cFeOfGGciWqqlXS4on7HrojVu5Hjx5v8A/sAAAD///8O80d3AAAAEnRSTlP//////////////////////wDiv78SAAAAjUlEQVR4nMWS4Q7DIAiErdCC7qq8/9MOZ9I12dpsNtkuhJzAp/wwLMMKSxjWNdRGtKHQwxn5CC0KT0hwl70IXa1ERVFtnRO0EmYY6FaMITAVUCuWCi+eop56GCKTmr/E1sK3zm8WDk90FcvpYd1Z3aGv5A6NzNmE59pvEfJjRxMlTK17sPD3+if6+z98B9GgH4VRq7SWAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCLStr_04" align="right" hspace="5" width="125" height="32" border="0">orentz.</font>
|
||
By 1887, some eighteen years before Einstein’s paper, Michelson and
|
||
Morley had made experiments that showed that light has the same
|
||
velocity relative to any object, regardless of its own motion. What
|
||
made their result puzzling was the Newtonian assumption that the
|
||
medium in which light propagates is a “luminiferous ether,” a
|
||
very subtle kind of material substance that was supposed to be at
|
||
rest in absolute space. Given that the velocity of light is
|
||
everywhere the same <i>relative to absolute space</i>, they expected
|
||
that the velocity of light, as measured from a material object, to
|
||
vary with that object’s own velocity in absolute space—just as
|
||
the velocity of ripples propagating in a pond arrive faster (or
|
||
slower), when a boat is moving toward them (or away from them).</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Michelson
|
||
and Morley used an interferometer, which compares the two-way
|
||
velocities of light in perpendicular directions; that is, light is
|
||
reflected back from mirrors in perpendicular directions and the
|
||
signals are compared to see if one is lagging behind the other. They
|
||
made measurements at various points in the Earth’s orbit around the
|
||
sun, where the Earth should have different velocities in absolute
|
||
space. On a moving object, the time it takes for light to travel both
|
||
to and from a distant mirror in the direction of absolute motion
|
||
should be different from the time it takes to travel an equal
|
||
distance in the transverse direction.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote1anc" href="#sdendnote1sym"><sup>i</sup></a></sup>
|
||
The margins of error were small enough, given the velocity of light
|
||
and the velocity of the Earth in its orbit around the sun, that it
|
||
should have been possible for their interferometer to detect absolute
|
||
velocity. But Michelson and Morley failed to detect any difference at
|
||
all in the time it took light to travel the same distance in
|
||
perpendicular directions. Absolute motion could not be detected.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Length
|
||
contraction.</b></i> The Michelson-Morley result was surprising, but
|
||
even before Einstein published his special theory in 1905, Lorentz
|
||
had proposed a Newtonian explanation of it. Lorentz showed, in 1895,
|
||
that their result could be explained physically, if the motion of
|
||
such an apparatus in absolute space caused its length to shrink in
|
||
the direction of motion as a function of its velocity by a factor of
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="StrEqBeta" align="bottom" width="46" height="18" border="0">.
|
||
Lorentz argued that this length contraction is a real physical change
|
||
in the material object that depends on its motion relative to
|
||
absolute space.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
equation was <i>L=L</i><sub><i>o<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image3" align="bottom" width="46" height="18" border="0"></i></sub>,
|
||
where <i>L</i><sub><i>o</i></sub> was the length at absolute rest.
|
||
The shrinkage had been proposed independently by George F. Fitzgerald
|
||
in 1889 and hence became known as the “Lorentz-Fitzgerald
|
||
contraction”.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote2anc" href="#sdendnote2sym"><sup>ii</sup></a></sup>
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Lorentz
|
||
tried to explain the length contraction physically, as an effect of
|
||
motion through a stagnant ether on the electrostatic forces among its
|
||
constituent, charged particles.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote3anc" href="#sdendnote3sym"><sup>iii</sup></a></sup>
|
||
But he could just as well have taken it to be a law of physics,
|
||
making the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction the discovery of a new,
|
||
basic physical law. (An ontological explanation of it will be
|
||
suggested in the last section of this discussion of the special
|
||
theory of relativity.)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Lorentz
|
||
also described the length contraction as a mathematical
|
||
transformation between the coordinates of a reference frame based on
|
||
the moving material object and the coordinates of a reference frame
|
||
at absolute rest. Lorentz started with the Galilean transformation by
|
||
which Newtonians would obtain the spatial coordinates used on an
|
||
object in uniform motion in the x-direction, <i>or x’ = x - vt</i>,
|
||
and combining that with the length contraction he had discovered, he
|
||
came up with the transformation equation,
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAFQAAAAlCAMAAADryz6XAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAADcSURBVHic5ZXBDoQwCESn///TG+MubWGqQDEelngRyXOgBdAeMPwXVEMqoIYRgAI6+vAcD7Q/oohJwp7SXywg2k7tFdDJsws1Jf0WhP3Lz1xIoqWuN1y81UBtIhXQGma/e/Qg9qBD5sPd3obSjylj0DqlpFuymgV6e0gx5b5oHmWKBMk7DbUzu+1D1zPPDSWB5uZc3k/GXEOhHW4oG8WyU5QjBz236KRv6pecUuhCzkW/g0orow0dDFXI2N7vExHGnYZ2wGpFkOzd0Hlw6fqpseY4qPgYfAsat0egH+dmCyGOKLbbAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="StrEqSpace" align="bottom" width="77" height="32" border="0">for
|
||
obtaining the spatial coordinates on the moving material object.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote4anc" href="#sdendnote4sym"><sup>iv</sup></a></sup>
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Time
|
||
dilation.</b></i> There is, however, another distortion that material
|
||
objects undergo as a function of their absolute motion. That is a
|
||
slowing down of clocks (and physical processes generally) at the same
|
||
rate as the length contractions, or the so-called "time
|
||
dilation," which took somewhat longer for Lorentz to discover. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
Galilean transformation for time in Newtonian physics is simply </span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>t
|
||
= t'</i></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
because Newtonian physics assumes that time is the same everywhere.
|
||
But by using transformation equations to describe the distortions in
|
||
material objects, Lorentz found that he had to introduce a special
|
||
equation for transforming time: </span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>t’
|
||
= t - vx/c</i></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><sup><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>2
|
||
</i></span></font></font></sup></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">(</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldberg84"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Goldberg</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
p. 94). The new factor in the transformation equation, </span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>vx/c</i></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><sup><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>2</i></span></font></font></sup></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
implied that time on the moving frame varies with location in that
|
||
frame. Lorentz called it "local time," but he did not
|
||
attribute any physical significance to it. "Local time" is
|
||
not compatible with the belief in absolute space and time, and
|
||
Lorentz described it as “no more than an auxiliary mathematical
|
||
quantity” (</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Toretti83"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Torretti</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
p. 45, 85), insisting that his transformation equations were merely
|
||
“an aid to calculation” (</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldberg84"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Goldberg</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
p. 96). </span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
slowing down of physical processes is called “time dilation.”
|
||
Lorentz discovered this distortion by tinkering with various ways of
|
||
calculating the coordinates used on inertial reference frames in
|
||
relative motion. Thus, it is natural to describe time dilation as the
|
||
slowing down of clocks on the moving reference frame. It was included
|
||
in the final version of Lorentz's explanation, now called the
|
||
“Lorentz transformation equations.” (</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Lorentz04"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Lorentz</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">1904)
|
||
Those equations contained not only the length contraction and
|
||
transformation for “local time”, but also the implication that
|
||
clocks on moving frames are slowed down at the same rate as lengths
|
||
are contracted (that is,
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image5" align="bottom" width="46" height="18" border="0">).
|
||
The final Lorentz equation for time transformation included both the
|
||
variation in local time and time dilation:
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAFQAAAArCAMAAADRwV/nAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAADzSURBVHic5ZbbDsQgCETH///pTTetFxgpIk2zWZ4MxdNRRER5wPB/UHSkLCjKA9CSCYUauKBmBMjIAbUDmtCVRGGI/ib5cOBMDCQvphQXqTJpjAcKXJI7iRQYVLoPVd97vZPVOxLFJqA0qIpIrQP9Y6JpD1o3PRF6HpZc6Fi2kDWUAE0xQyliVqY1sa30fgsXhfpkrq7lNSiP0bcC7VdLUEh354grNW48H9S6iQnKAQU/dJijXFAWVetOOkJQQD/GZB+/42mlUCslERZzbEbXdSGErjY+kGnb0K4XN5faUYlxQcc8qLFqFcsvFI+9A43Y70A/AlMM9qECVTAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="StrEqTime" align="bottom" width="79" height="37" border="0">.
|
||
</span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
Lorentz took the distortions that he discovered in fast-moving
|
||
material objects to be laws of nature, he did not think that they
|
||
were basic. He thought they were effects of motion on the
|
||
interactions between electrons and the ether which could be explained
|
||
by his electronic theory of matter, and he saw explaining this effect
|
||
as the the main challenge to Newtonian physics. The transformation
|
||
equations themselves never seemed puzzling to Lorentz, because he
|
||
never took them to more than just a mathematical aid to calculation.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">P<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADoAAAAQCAMAAABwUpxKAAAAQlBMVEUAAAANDAkcGBMzAAAqJR04MSZJAABmAAB2AAB+AABxY01/cFeOfGGciWqqlXS4on7HrojVu5Hjx5v8A/sAAAD///8HY0uoAAAAFHRSTlP/////////////////////////AE9P5xEAAACfSURBVHicxZLbDsMgDENZR3YJJID//2NnqNZpUvfQVlqtgAzkgB8Iz8f9dt2lcAQNu3UMxR4tqE8ibd4reSOqMEVLxKqjWrKxmdFUK5CLcupuFWWfmGq3Hl0KitBW8wiIOlIy+UbDOzDvlV4+aPaymEHkMg4gw62g2peRnR+U6RvU5gs5KtqPwFQW5lzQxndQokwzSidr6Hadif7/D78AE/wjPxtuiaIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="TtsOtkCLStr_05" align="right" hspace="5" width="125" height="34" border="0">oincaré.</span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">H.
|
||
Poincaré thought he saw more clearly what Lorentz had discovered
|
||
than Lorentz himself. As early as 1895, Poincaré had expressed
|
||
dissatisfaction with Lorentz’s piecemeal approach, introducing one
|
||
modification of the laws of Newtonian physics after another in order
|
||
to account for different aspects of the phenomenon discovered by
|
||
Michelson and Morley. Instead of such </span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>ad
|
||
hoc</i></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">modifications,
|
||
he urged the recognition of what he called a “principle of
|
||
relativity” to cover all the phenomena involved in fast-moving
|
||
objects. As Poincaré put it in 1904, the principle of relativity
|
||
requires that “the laws of physical phenomena should be the same
|
||
for an observer at rest or for an observer carried along in uniform
|
||
movement of translation, so that we do not and cannot have any means
|
||
of determining whether we actually undergo a motion of this kind”
|
||
(from </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Toretti83a"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Torretti</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
83). </span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">A principle
|
||
of relativity like this had, in effect, been affirmed by Newton
|
||
himself, when he admitted that his laws of motion depend, not on the
|
||
absolute velocities of material objects, but only on their relative
|
||
velocities. That is, Newton had already denied that absolute rest
|
||
could be detected by mechanical experiments. It seemed that absolute
|
||
motion could be detected only when Maxwell had discovered that light
|
||
could be explained as an electromagnetic wave. Thus, Poincaré saw
|
||
Lorentz's discovery of distortions in fast-moving material objects as
|
||
a way of extending Newton’s principle of relativity to cover
|
||
electromagnetic phenomena. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">Understanding
|
||
how the undetectability of absolute motion could be a result of the
|
||
distortions that Lorentz had discovered, he referred to Lorentz
|
||
theory as “Lorentz’s principle of relativity” even after
|
||
Einstein had published his special theory and Lorentz himself was
|
||
attributing the principle of relativity to Einstein (</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Toretti83b"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Torretti</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">85,
|
||
</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldberg84b"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Goldberg</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">212,
|
||
and </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Holton73"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Holton</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">178).
|
||
Indeed, Poincaré joined Lorentz in the attempt to explain the
|
||
Lorentz distortions by the motion of material objects through
|
||
absolute space, also expecting to find their cause in the dynamics of
|
||
electrons; he also thought that motion through the ether caused
|
||
material objects to shrink in the direction of motion and natural
|
||
clocks to slow down by the exact amount required to mask their
|
||
motion, as implied by Lorentz’s transformation equations (</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldberg84b"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Goldberg</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">94-102,
|
||
</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Toretti83b"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Torretti</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">38-47).
|
||
Furthermore, Poincaré apparently thought that what Lorentz said
|
||
about those equations in his 1904 work answered his own demand that
|
||
it be a “demonstration of the principle of relativity with a single
|
||
thrust” (</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldber84b"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Goldberg</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">214-15).</span></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Lorentz's
|
||
explanation of the distortions was not, however, a complete
|
||
explanation of the principle of relativity. There are really two
|
||
quite different aspects of the phenomenon described by the principle
|
||
of relativity, and Lorentz had explicitly explained only one of them.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What
|
||
Lorentz’s electron theory of matter (and Poincaré’s own
|
||
refinements of it) explained physically were the Lorentz distortions
|
||
in material objects with absolute velocity. That explained the
|
||
negative outcome of the Michelson-Morley experiment: the contraction
|
||
of lengths in the direction of motion and the slowing down of clocks
|
||
as a function of motion through absolute space does make it
|
||
physically impossible to detect absolute motion on a moving object by
|
||
measuring the velocity of light relative to it. And that is one way
|
||
in which inertial reference frames are empirically equivalent,
|
||
because it holds of measurements made using any material object in
|
||
uniform motion as one's reference frame, regardless of its motion
|
||
through absolute space.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But there
|
||
is more to the principle of relativity than explaining the null
|
||
result of the Michelson-Morley experiment. The transformation
|
||
equations that Lorentz constructed to describe the effects of
|
||
absolute motion on material objects predict the outcomes of other
|
||
experiments, such as attempts to measure directly the lengths of
|
||
high-velocity measuring rods and the rate at which high-velocity
|
||
clocks are ticking away. Though such experiments are more difficult
|
||
to perform, they are conceivable, and Lorentz's equations do make
|
||
predictions about them: moving measuring rods will be shrunken in the
|
||
direction of motion and moving clocks will be slowed down. That
|
||
suggests another way of detecting absolute motion. One might compare
|
||
measuring rods or clocks that are moving at a whole range different
|
||
velocities with one another and take the one with the longest
|
||
measuring rods and quickest clocks to be closest to absolute rest.
|
||
Hence, the principle of relativity would be false.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It is not
|
||
possible, however, to detect absolute rest in this way, and as it
|
||
happens, its impossibility is also predicted by Lorentz's theory,
|
||
because he formulated his description of the Lorentz distortions in
|
||
terms of transformation equations. Transformation equations are
|
||
equations for transforming the coordinates obtained by using one
|
||
material objects as a frame of reference into the coordinates
|
||
obtained by using another material object as a frame of reference,
|
||
and to be consistent, they must work both ways. That is, it must be
|
||
possible to obtain the original coordinates by applying the
|
||
transformation equations to the transformed coordinates. Thus,
|
||
whatever distortions observers at absolute rest may find in material
|
||
objects with a high absolute velocity will also be found by observers
|
||
in absolute motion in material objects that are at absolute rest. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
recognition that Lorentz's theory, being formulated in terms of
|
||
transformation equations, implied that all such inertial reference
|
||
frames are empirically equivalent is presumably what led Poincaré to
|
||
proclaim that Lorentz had finally explained the truth of the
|
||
principle of relativity. Absolute rest and motion cannot be detected
|
||
from any inertial reference frame.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Lorentz's
|
||
theory was not, however, an adequate explanation of the principle of
|
||
relativity, for there is still something puzzling about the empirical
|
||
equivalence entailed by the symmetry of the Lorentz transformation
|
||
equations. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Lorentz
|
||
meant his transformation equations to be a way of describing the
|
||
length contraction and time dilation in material objects with
|
||
absolute motion, for that would explain the Michelson-Morley
|
||
experiment, that is, why absolute motion cannot be detected by
|
||
measuring the velocity of light in different directions. But since
|
||
the transformation equations describe a symmetry between the members
|
||
of any pair of inertial reference frames, they imply that observers
|
||
using a fast-moving material object as the basis of their reference
|
||
frame would observe a length contraction in measuring rods that were
|
||
at absolute rest and a time dilation in clocks at absolute rest. That
|
||
makes it impossible to detect absolute rest or motion by comparing
|
||
different inertial reference frames with one another. But it is
|
||
puzzling, because it is hard to see how both views could be true at
|
||
the same time, that is, how two measuring rods passing one another at
|
||
high velocity could both be shorter than the other and how two clocks
|
||
passing by one another could both be going slower than the other. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In other
|
||
words, Lorentz's theory does not really give a physical explanation
|
||
of what Poincaré called the "principle of relativity."
|
||
What entails the truth of the principle of relativity is the
|
||
description of the Lorentz distortions in terms of transformation
|
||
equations; the inability to detect absolute rest and motion by
|
||
comparing inertial frames with one another comes from the symmetrical
|
||
relationship that transformation equations represent as holding
|
||
between the members of any pair of inertial reference frames. That
|
||
symmetry is not physically possible, at least, not in the sense of
|
||
"physical" that Lorentz had in mind when he tried to
|
||
explain the distortions as occurring to material objects because of
|
||
their motion in absolute space. If inertial frames are material
|
||
objects in absolute space, then their measuring rods cannot both be
|
||
shorter than the other and their clocks cannot both be slower. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As we shall
|
||
see, what enables Lorentz's transformation equations to predict the
|
||
symmetry of distortions is the "local time" factor in the
|
||
time equation, <i>vx/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>,
|
||
which Lorentz insisted was just an "aid to calculation." It
|
||
represents the readings that would be given by clocks on a moving
|
||
reference frame that have been synchronized by using light signals
|
||
between them as if they were all at absolute rest, that is, on the
|
||
assumption that the one-way velocity of light is the same both ways
|
||
along the pathway between any two clocks (as required by Einstein's
|
||
definition of simultaneity at a distance). That assumption is false,
|
||
as Lorentz understood these phenomena, and clocks on the moving
|
||
inertial frame would be mis-synchronized. It can be shown, as we
|
||
shall see, that this way of mis-synchronizing clocks on a moving
|
||
frame combines with the Lorentz distortions that the moving frame is
|
||
actually suffering to make it appear that its own Lorentz distortions
|
||
are occurring in the reference frame at absolute rest (or moving more
|
||
slowly). This is a physical explanation, given how the other frame's
|
||
measuring rods and clocks are measured. But it is an explanation of
|
||
the principle of relativity that reveals it to be the description of
|
||
a <i>mere appearance</i>. Though there is an <i>empirical equivalence
|
||
</i>among inertial frames, a physicist who accepted Lorentz's
|
||
Newtonian assumptions would insist that it has a <i>deeper physical
|
||
explanation</i>. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
was not Lorentz, however, but Poincaré who declared that Lorentz had
|
||
explained the truth of the principle of relativity, and Poincaré's
|
||
acceptance of Lorentz's explanation as adequate may have been colored
|
||
by his own philosophical commitment to conventionalism. Poincaré
|
||
viewed the choice between Euclidean or non-Euclidean geometry as
|
||
conventional, and he argued that convention is also what raised
|
||
inertia and the conservation of energy to the status of principles
|
||
that could not be empirically falsified. Poincaré's acceptance of
|
||
the principle of relativity should probably be understood in the
|
||
context of this more or less Kantian skepticism about knowing the
|
||
real nature of what exists. Considering how the standard of
|
||
simultaneity at a distance varies from one inertial reference frame
|
||
to another (depending on the "local time" factor in the
|
||
Lorentz transformation equations), the principle of relativity could
|
||
also be seen as a conventional truth. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Poincaré's
|
||
pronouncement that Lorentz's theory had explained the principle of
|
||
relativity could not have set well with Lorentz himself. Lorentz may
|
||
have continued to call it "Einstein's principle of relativity"
|
||
because he realized that it was not <i>explained </i>by his theory
|
||
about how spatial and temporal distortions are caused in material
|
||
objects by their absolute motion. What is responsible for the
|
||
principle of relativity is the symmetry in pairs of inertial frames
|
||
entailed by his equations being transformation equations. If the
|
||
distortions didn’t hold <i>symmetrically </i>in any pair inertial
|
||
frames, it would be possible to detect absolute rest and motion. But
|
||
to my knowledge, Lorentz never argued explicitly that what he called
|
||
"local time" on the moving material object (that is, <i>vx/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
in the time equation) represents a mis-synchronization of clocks on
|
||
the moving frame that causes the moving frame's own Lorentz
|
||
distortions to appear to be occurring in the other inertial reference
|
||
frame. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
Newtonian explanation of all the relevant phenomena did not,
|
||
therefore, have an adequate defender. Lorentz was more concerned to
|
||
find an adequate physical explanation of the distortions he had
|
||
discovered in material objects, and Poincaré was more interested in
|
||
defending conventionalism. That is the Newtonian context in which
|
||
Einstein's special theory of relativity won the day. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">E<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADoAAAARCAMAAAC7Dk/vAAAASFBMVEUAAAANDAkcGBMzAAAqJR04MSZJAABGPjBmAAB2AAB+AABjV0NxY01/cFeOfGGciWqqlXS4on7HrojVu5Hjx5v8A/sAAAD///8Rn7hnAAAAFnRSTlP///////////////////////////8AAdLA5AAAAJRJREFUeJzF09EOwiAMBVCmVNRSKOz+/7daiNFliVtkD7svtIGT8gDu+bjfrkNxR6gbzjGKkXyoXogSUllufjvepLG1WqEaTcwSK4iTeSvQ1iSbU6MisnogZFWwFIjkABAw5Shr6hZTG9V2ULwNsxJENHVK7yO7dIZSp6Fa/YuuL9wpe+vUM4on2qH/50x6xhse/nQvt8YoCx9RL4cAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="TtsOtkCLStr_06" align="right" hspace="5" width="125" height="36" border="0">instein.
|
||
</span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">Einstein
|
||
took a dramatically different approach from both Lorentz and
|
||
Poincaré. Instead of taking the principle of relativity to be an
|
||
empirical hypothesis that could be explained physically by deeper,
|
||
Newtonian principles, or as a conventional truth, Einstein raised the
|
||
principle of relativity to the status of a </span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>postulate</i></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
which was not to be explained at all, but rather accepted as basic
|
||
and used to explain other phenomena (</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Zaharb"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Zahar</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">90-2).
|
||
The mathematical elegance of Einstein's explanation of these
|
||
phenomena is stunning. From the premise that all inertial reference
|
||
frames are empirically equivalent, he derived a description of how
|
||
two different inertial reference frames would appear to each other;
|
||
that is, he deduced the Lorentz transformation equations. </span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Einstein's
|
||
new approach can be seen most clearly by considering the structure of
|
||
his argument. It is represented below in a diagrammatic form. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<center>
|
||
<table width="431" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
|
||
<col width="133">
|
||
<col width="149">
|
||
<col width="148">
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td width="133" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><b>Einstein's
|
||
<br>Premises:</b></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="149" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><i><b>The
|
||
Principle of Relativity</b></i></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="148" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt">The
|
||
laws of nature apply the same way on all inertial frames.</font></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td width="133" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"> </font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="149" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><i><b>The
|
||
Light Postulate</b></i></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="148" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt">The
|
||
velocity of light is the same on all inertial frames.</font></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td width="133" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"> </font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="149" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><i><b>The
|
||
Definition of Simultaneity at a Distance</b></i></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="148" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt">The
|
||
local event halfway through the period required for light to
|
||
travel to the distant event and back is simultaneous with the
|
||
distant event.</font></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td width="133" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"> </font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="149" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"> </font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="148" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"> </font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td width="133" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><b>Einstein's<br>Conclusions:</b></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="149" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt">To
|
||
obtain the second frame's coordinates from the first frame:</font></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="148" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt">To
|
||
obtain the first frame's coordinates from the second frame:</font></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td width="133" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><i>Lorentz
|
||
transformation equations </i> <font size="1" style="font-size: 7pt">(kinematic
|
||
phenomena)</font></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="149" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center"><font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAFQAAAAlCAMAAADryz6XAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAADcSURBVHic5ZXBDoQwCESn///TG+MubWGqQDEelngRyXOgBdAeMPwXVEMqoIYRgAI6+vAcD7Q/oohJwp7SXywg2k7tFdDJsws1Jf0WhP3Lz1xIoqWuN1y81UBtIhXQGma/e/Qg9qBD5sPd3obSjylj0DqlpFuymgV6e0gx5b5oHmWKBMk7DbUzu+1D1zPPDSWB5uZc3k/GXEOhHW4oG8WyU5QjBz236KRv6pecUuhCzkW/g0orow0dDFXI2N7vExHGnYZ2wGpFkOzd0Hlw6fqpseY4qPgYfAsat0egH+dmCyGOKLbbAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="image002" align="bottom" width="84" height="37" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="148" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center"><font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAFAAAAAlCAMAAADiIJ7tAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAADfSURBVHic5ZbbDsQgCETH///pbbf1giAZ0Kdd06SN4ukARYpyeOCHgKYl1BINhN7beDHgZY5uiD55XxiWaIWPAAm877A8poADGq+oImSngUJhGggziTp4LBDFBjZqWGFw/CcQOIn9Zr/VU/1sd4HGdHYI4CmFbgiD+l6aB0wo3FqPblgs60hDFHkUqKOOsgW05nmge+g5Dyug+WFqOTxwUUczhkzKXJiA0YTB9eXWO+ceBW3DAHuVP+fRWFhLB1yFAji9JwesvkigjiD/54Dq7crcSImf5dTZ6O45DsyMD7ZjCnnk54RFAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="image004" align="bottom" width="80" height="37" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td width="133" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"> </font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="149" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center"><font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAACEAAAAQCAMAAACvHOZVAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAABOSURBVHiclY9BEgAgCALp/5+ubCxLxYmjLQFolfBDJPA5oybylGGefkeYu3mGyLiViBOgfks8f2wiWwFdQFbcLWNAJpGaqxorQTq4MKIO+18B3KhV6LsAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="image006" align="bottom" width="33" height="16" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="148" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center"><font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAACEAAAAQCAMAAACvHOZVAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAABNSURBVHicpZBRCgAgCEPn/S8dUorGlh8NQRhPXcEm4ZvARGAmdsGLDCOIaG676rQFQW6l2Yi+oxIsbponB33FFUgB4kvQiGcIlUHcU1r7egHcdvVOgQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" name="image008" align="bottom" width="33" height="16" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td width="133" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"> </font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="149" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center"><font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAACAAAAAMCAMAAAA0yk+LAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAABASURBVHicY2AkABiIV4BDKVyYgaACnFYwgAAWBXBxFEkGqDDESAZGBMZpPZrhSCYwwgzCZj+yFUhasLmRcEgCAA21AVBW/R6MAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="image010" align="bottom" width="32" height="12" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="148" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center"><font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAACAAAAAMCAMAAAA0yk+LAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAABASURBVHicY2AkABgoVMBAQAEDQQVgM0AAUytYkAFqCQOSKANCK9yRWK1hQNBweSQTkARRlKC6DkMXhhtRjMIFAA3KAVBsBAX4AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="image012" align="bottom" width="32" height="12" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td width="133" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"> </font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="149" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center"><font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAFQAAAArCAMAAADRwV/nAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAADzSURBVHic5ZbbDsQgCETH///pTTetFxgpIk2zWZ4MxdNRRER5wPB/UHSkLCjKA9CSCYUauKBmBMjIAbUDmtCVRGGI/ib5cOBMDCQvphQXqTJpjAcKXJI7iRQYVLoPVd97vZPVOxLFJqA0qIpIrQP9Y6JpD1o3PRF6HpZc6Fi2kDWUAE0xQyliVqY1sa30fgsXhfpkrq7lNSiP0bcC7VdLUEh354grNW48H9S6iQnKAQU/dJijXFAWVetOOkJQQD/GZB+/42mlUCslERZzbEbXdSGErjY+kGnb0K4XN5faUYlxQcc8qLFqFcsvFI+9A43Y70A/AlMM9qECVTAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="image014" align="bottom" width="84" height="43" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="148" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center"><font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAE0AAAAoCAMAAACM7odrAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAADpSURBVHiczZVJEsUgCAXb+1/6L/KNyBAnKhVXVoDmCUYomYsv0iCRRsmklRQaahPSGOVCmge0C/bghKTx3AWQ3hXKxaDqQpLG2pRThdD27oF92i3znx+bhCAqonXhezTfqVPoHDTugq9NxpsefPSvF7Q8IqnyKPSFPKSJ/t9gtlb+ST1tzbyirF3sONmatsceLNM2rLYeBzRdHcoJzX6fpzkezps8SfOapIfPPM3x0BOKuS7omUp/n+hIyzQ7oDD2mHTT2l/dS4t6a2G42vZoxafpqgWj0sPZoaRrpN+cIW1pJT4gWxHv0X5MgQrYZJSh4wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" name="image016" align="bottom" width="77" height="40" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td width="133" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left"><font color="#000000"><i>Relativistic
|
||
increase in mass </i> <font size="1" style="font-size: 7pt">(dynamic
|
||
phenomena)</font></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="149" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center"><font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAF0AAAAlCAMAAAAX3hVdAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAAC8SURBVHic7dXRDoAgCAXQ6///dJvpQhIlkJpbziedJ9BEpMiGX99FB0oP0Ssfpde+n67HHXrUzjwKJPBTFFQla9dX4wnk6kXo/Ooht3W6+P/C1Ib62thVV88UOdHHvDEX3TLrRnl0nu89f4fOH5DOg6LWu38sM2y6cOpTXP8IvKbXslTyybN5zLwzvJiCTwoHP4HrwhIhzgGayQCZVYBE9WZ0gX5R0iM22hi1Di42ulSlFKfqqMaf644Wqx935gx0LITV2wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" name="image018" align="bottom" width="93" height="37" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
<td width="148" style="border: none; padding: 0cm">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center"><font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAFkAAAAlCAMAAAAeNbUnAAAAD1BMVEUAAAD8A/v8A/sAAAD////nTSorAAAAAnRSTlP/AOW3MEoAAADDSURBVHic7dbhDoMgDATg4/1f2qksyFHWcoPEZRL9AdIvtYKKtKrhr2QvUpYxWX555+EHjuac6RVyCrF3kuOwKK+oxlASj3yRy7aaLZdttXePNk221yiU1pen5uxuKy3lIvdp8RYCYfYUTqVJzZc7MI1zX5fbcUm2JoHi21UbkM2nCwqXZGtSXmKg/ogMmlS/Y2CrklzdA3ggKuN6vjcZqLjRtVNfg5nz93KyZa5yB3HqjFwIO+LD84vJWlv2r/qT3+4N/SYL4A2dV7IAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="image020" align="bottom" width="89" height="37" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
</td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
</table>
|
||
</center>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
assumption that inertial frames are all empirically equivalent takes
|
||
the form of three premises in Einstein’s argument: the Principle of
|
||
Relativity, the Light Postulate, and Einstein's Definition of
|
||
Simultaneity at a Distance (see table). Einstein's principle of
|
||
relativity holds, with Poincaré, that the laws of nature hold in the
|
||
same way on every inertial reference frame. That allowed Einstein to
|
||
assume that Maxwell's laws of electromagnetism hold universally, and
|
||
he considered what would be true of two different inertial frames in
|
||
the same world. But in order to deduce the Lorentz transformation
|
||
equations, Einstein also had to assume that that the velocity of
|
||
light is the same relative to every inertial frame (the light
|
||
postulate) and, accordingly, that simultaneity at a distance is
|
||
defined on each reference frame as if the velocity of light is the
|
||
same both to and back from a distance object. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What
|
||
Einstein deduced from these premises are the “Lorentz
|
||
transformation equations,” that is, equations for transforming the
|
||
coordinates of any given inertial reference frame into those of any
|
||
other. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The Lorentz
|
||
transformation equations imply that any material object moving
|
||
relative to any other inertial frame at a velocity approaching that
|
||
of light will appear to suffer the Lorentz distortions: its clocks
|
||
(and all physical processes) will be slowed down, and its measuring
|
||
rods (and all material objects) will be shortened in the direction of
|
||
its motion—both by the same amount,
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image6" align="bottom" width="46" height="18" border="0">,
|
||
which is a function of its velocity in the observer’s reference
|
||
frame. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Einstein
|
||
also inferred from these kinematic distortions and his principle of
|
||
relativity that the mass of objects moving in an inertial frame
|
||
increases at the same rate, making three distortions altogether. That
|
||
dynamical implication is the source of Einstein's most famous
|
||
equations, <i>E = mc</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
should be emphasized that there are really two sets of transformation
|
||
equations. It may not seem that way, because Einstein's conclusion is
|
||
often stated as just one of the two sets of equations listed above,
|
||
making it look mathematically simpler. But that formulation overlooks
|
||
a mathematical detail and thereby obscures what Einstein's conclusion
|
||
is about.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though the
|
||
Lorentz transformation is exactly the same both ways between the
|
||
members of any pair of inertial reference frames, it requires two,
|
||
non-identical sets of transformation equations, because their
|
||
relative velocity has the opposite sign for each observer. That is,
|
||
the two coordinate systems are set up so that their origins coincide
|
||
when <i>t = 0</i> and <i>t' = 0</i>, and since they are moving in
|
||
opposite directions, the relative velocity is <i>v</i> for one of
|
||
them and <i>-v</i> for the other. Thus, in order for the
|
||
transformation to be symmetrical, one set of transformation equations
|
||
has to have the opposite sign for the second factor in the numerator
|
||
of the equations for space and time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since this
|
||
seems to be a mere technicality, the conclusions of Einstein’s
|
||
argument are usually represented as a single set of Lorentz
|
||
transformation equations (the first set in the above table).
|
||
Duplication is avoided by introducing a special mathematical symbol
|
||
to make the single set of equations represent both transformations in
|
||
any pair of inertial frames. Thus, Einstein's conclusion seems more
|
||
like just another universal law of nature. But this is just homage to
|
||
the Pythagorean ideal of mathematical simplicity, which obscures the
|
||
fact that Einstein's theory is, in the first instance, about the
|
||
symmetry that holds between the members of every pair of inertial
|
||
frames. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
should also be emphasized that Einstein's theory is about how
|
||
<i>reference frames</i> are related, and only indirectly about the
|
||
material objects on which they are based. Though it does have
|
||
implications concerning the relationship between material objects
|
||
with a high relative velocity, that relationship is described by way
|
||
of a mathematical transformation that holds between the reference
|
||
frames based on them.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Inertial
|
||
reference frames are based on material objects that are not being
|
||
accelerated, and what makes the material object a reference frame is
|
||
that it is used as the basis for a coordinate system by which the
|
||
locations and times of events throughout the universe can be
|
||
measured. (For this purpose, it is useful to think of an inertial
|
||
reference frame as a grid of rigid bars extending wherever needed in
|
||
space with synchronized clocks located everywhere.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Notice that
|
||
Einstein's three premises are all about reference frames based on
|
||
material objects. Indeed, his definition of simultaneity prescribes
|
||
how clocks must be synchronized to set up such a reference frame. The
|
||
light postulate makes explicit the assumption about the velocity of
|
||
light on which his definition of simultaneity is based. And the
|
||
principle of relativity states that all the laws of physics will hold
|
||
the same way within that reference frame as every other one, that is,
|
||
will make correct predictions about what happens in that reference
|
||
frame. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Einstein
|
||
derives conclusions from his premises by assuming that there are two
|
||
different inertial reference frames in the world and figuring out how
|
||
they must appear to one another. Since his premises are about their
|
||
reference frames, it is hardly surprising that his conclusion is
|
||
about a mathematical transformation between their coordinates. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Indirectly,
|
||
however, Einstein's conclusion is a description of how material
|
||
objects with different constant velocities are related to one another
|
||
as parts of the same world, since the reference frames in question
|
||
are based on material objects. But to see Einstein's conclusion as a
|
||
description of how material objects are related in space is to take
|
||
Lorentz's approach. For Lorentz, these same transformation equations
|
||
were just a mathematically convenient way of describing <i>from the
|
||
absolute frame </i>the spatial and temporal distortions that occur in
|
||
material objects with a high velocity in absolute space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">By calling
|
||
his argument a theory of <i>relativity</i>, Einstein emphasized that
|
||
his theory is about the empirical equivalence of all inertial
|
||
reference frames, not the relationship between the material objects
|
||
on which they are based. Observers on each inertial reference frame
|
||
have their own view of the relationship between the material objects
|
||
involved, but they are different views, and it is their views that
|
||
are related by the Lorentz transformation equations. The symmetry of
|
||
the relationship between their reference frames is what is crucial
|
||
for Einstein, because that is what rules out any way of detecting
|
||
absolute rest or motion by comparing inertial frames to one another
|
||
and ensures that there is nothing to distinguish one inertial frame
|
||
from another except their velocities relative to one another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
Lorentz distortions in material objects are, however, a consequence
|
||
of the Lorentz transformation equations that Einstein deduced. And if
|
||
one does follow Lorentz, interpreting them as a way of describing the
|
||
material objects on which the inertial reference frames are based,
|
||
then the Lorentz transformation equations lead to paradoxes, as I
|
||
have already suggested. Those equations imply that observers using
|
||
any given inertial reference frame will find the Lorentz distortions
|
||
occurring in the material objects on which the <i>other </i>inertial
|
||
reference frame is based, and thus, the symmetry of the
|
||
transformation for any pair of inertial frames leads to paradoxes. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Consider
|
||
two inertial frames in motion relative to one another. From the first
|
||
frame it appears that clocks on the second frame are slowed down.
|
||
That would make sense, if from the second frame, it appeared that
|
||
first-frame clocks were speeded up. But special relativity implies
|
||
that it also appears from the second frame that clocks on the first
|
||
frame are slowed down. That is, the distortions are <i>symmetrical </i>on
|
||
Einstein’s theory, not the reverse of one another, as one might
|
||
expect. And if the Lorentz distortions are really symmetrical, it is
|
||
inconceivable that the two inertial frames are just material objects
|
||
moving relative to one another in absolute space, because in absolute
|
||
space, there can’t be two clocks next to one another both of which
|
||
are actually going slower than the other. If one assumes that
|
||
Einstein's theory is describing material objects, one must give up
|
||
the assumption that those objects are located in absolute space. They
|
||
are, of course, parts of the same world, but they must be related to
|
||
one another in some other way. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The same
|
||
problem arises from the symmetry of the length contraction and
|
||
relativistic mass increase, for there cannot be two measuring rods
|
||
passing one another in space that are both shorter than the other.
|
||
Nor can there be two material objects both be more massive than the
|
||
other. It is simply not possible for material objects located in
|
||
absolute space.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">None of
|
||
this should be a surprise, however, because even the <i>Light
|
||
Postulate </i>itself is incompatible with absolute space (or at
|
||
least, with the assumption that light has a fixed velocity relative
|
||
to absolute space). Though Newtonian physics had taken absolute space
|
||
to contain the medium in which light propagates, Einstein assumed
|
||
that the velocity of light relative to every object is the same,
|
||
regardless of their own velocities relative to other objects in the
|
||
world. Thus, Einstein held that the velocity of light would be the
|
||
same in both members of any pair of inertial frames. This is not
|
||
possible, if electromagnetic waves propagate through (an ether in)
|
||
absolute space, like waves in water, for the motion of an object
|
||
through waves propagating in space would change the velocity of those
|
||
waves relative to the object—just as the motion of a row boat
|
||
through ripples propagating in a pond changes the velocity of those
|
||
ripples relative to the boat. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Taken
|
||
as a description of the relationship between material objects in
|
||
space, therefore, Einstein's special theory of relativity leads to
|
||
paradoxes. But Einstein was not discouraged by these paradoxes. He
|
||
was not thinking of inertial reference frames as material objects
|
||
that are related in space, that is, in absolute space, or a space
|
||
that is the same for both material objects. He was making a more
|
||
abstract, mathematical argument and, in the process, giving physics a
|
||
new standpoint from which to explain all physical processes. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">That
|
||
Einstein's basic approach is different from Lorentz's can be seen in
|
||
what made Einstein curious about these phenomena in the first place.
|
||
It was not the Michelson-Morley experiment, but rather something
|
||
peculiar about the connection between classical mechanics and
|
||
Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism (</span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Zaharb"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Zahar</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">99-100).
|
||
Einstein realized that even though Maxwell’s theory was standardly
|
||
interpreted as referring to absolute space, absolute space was not
|
||
needed in order to explain electromagnetic phenomena. For example, a
|
||
conductor moving through a magnetic field at absolute rest moves
|
||
electrons exactly the same way as if it were at absolute rest and the
|
||
magnetic field were moving. That is what suggested the principle of
|
||
relativity to Einstein, and though from it he derived the same
|
||
transformation equations that Lorentz had proposed in 1904, Einstein
|
||
claimed not to know about Lorentz's 1904 work.</span></font></font><font color="#000000"><sup><span lang="en-US"><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote5anc" href="#sdendnote5sym"><sup>v</sup></a></span></sup></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">By raising
|
||
the principle of relativity to the status of a <i>postulate</i>,
|
||
Einstein was assuming, in effect, that the deepest truth that can be
|
||
known about the nature of space and time is that inertial frames are
|
||
all empirically equivalent. And by relying on the predictions of
|
||
measurements derived from that principle to justify his theory,
|
||
Einstein had the support of the positivists, who dominated philosophy
|
||
of science at that time. Indeed, Einstein admits to having been
|
||
influenced by Ernst Mach at the time of his first paper on special
|
||
relativity. To positivists, the paradoxes mentioned above about two
|
||
clocks both going slower than the other and two measuring rods both
|
||
shorter than the other are not real problems, but merely theoretical
|
||
problems. Theoretical propositions that could not be spelled out in
|
||
terms of observations were dismissed as "metaphysical," as
|
||
if theories were mere instruments for making predictions. That
|
||
attitude could be taken about the aforementioned paradoxes, because
|
||
there is never any occasion in which two clocks can be directly
|
||
observed both going slower than the other (or two measuring rods
|
||
observed both shorter than the other). Observations are made from one
|
||
inertial reference frame or another, and if both members of some pair
|
||
of inertial frames are observed from a third reference frame, their
|
||
clocks and measuring rods do not appear this way because of the
|
||
Lorentz distortions that are introduced by its own velocity relative
|
||
to them. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Though
|
||
when taken as a description of material objects, the special theory
|
||
of relativity is incompatible with the existence of absolute space,
|
||
Einstein did not attempt to use its implications to show that
|
||
absolute space does not exist. He was making a mathematical argument
|
||
to show that accepted theories in Newtonian physics, which did assume
|
||
the existence of absolute space, could all be replaced by theories
|
||
that do not mention absolute rest or motion at all.</span></font></font><font color="#000000"><sup><span lang="en-US"><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote6anc" href="#sdendnote6sym"><sup>vi</sup></a></span></sup></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">All
|
||
he explicitly claimed was that physics does not require an
|
||
“absolutely stationary space” and that the notion of a
|
||
“‘luminiferous ether’ will prove to be superfluous” because
|
||
the “phenomena of electrodynamics as well as of mechanics possess
|
||
no properties corresponding to the ideas of absolute rest”
|
||
(</span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Einstein</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
1923 p. 37). It could be argued, therefore, that Einstein was merely
|
||
imitating empiricist skepticism about theoretical entities generally
|
||
by casting doubt on the reality of absolute space. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As it
|
||
turned out, Einstein's theory proved to be remarkably successful in
|
||
making surprising predictions of new experiments. For example,
|
||
unstable particles have longer half-lives when moving at velocities
|
||
approaching that of light. Clocks flown around the earth are indeed
|
||
slowed down compared to clocks that stayed at home. The most famous
|
||
new prediction of special relativity, <i>E = mc</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>,
|
||
has been confirmed repeatedly. It is a consequence of the
|
||
relativistic increase in mass, which Einstein first pointed out, and
|
||
without it, high energy physics as we know it today would be
|
||
inconceivable. Finally, the equations of special relativity have
|
||
become (after Dirac) the foundation of quantum field theory as well
|
||
as Einstein’s theory of gravitation. The Lorentz transformation is
|
||
now so basic to physics that “covariance” (or “Lorentz
|
||
covariance”) is taken as a constraint on all possible laws of
|
||
physics. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
Newtonian physicists complained about the loss of intuitive
|
||
understanding that came with the acceptance of Einstein's way of
|
||
explaining these phenomena. It was no longer possible to construct in
|
||
ordinary spatial imagination a picture of the nature of the world.
|
||
But that objection did not detract from the predictive success of
|
||
Einstein's theory, and the Einsteinian revolution made the capacity
|
||
of mathematical arguments to make surprising predictions of precise
|
||
measurements the establishment criterion for accepting theories in
|
||
contemporary physics. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">But
|
||
physics is not just mathematics. A theory in physics is generally
|
||
thought to be true when it corresponds to what exists, and if the
|
||
special theory of relativity does not correspond to material objects
|
||
in absolute space, we want to know what it does correspond to. The
|
||
success in making surprising predictions of what happens by which
|
||
Einstein's theory has been confirmed means that it corresponds to
|
||
regularities that hold of change in the world, but it is natural to
|
||
want to know the nature of what exists that makes those regularities
|
||
true. The answer given by contemporary physics is spacetime, and it
|
||
was Minkowski that has made that answer possible.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">M<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADoAAAAQCAMAAABwUpxKAAAARVBMVEUAAAAcGBMzAAAqJR04MSZJAABGPjBmAAB2AAB+AABjV0NxY01/cFeOfGGciWqqlXS4on7HrojVu5Hjx5v8A/sAAAD///+jfPvlAAAAFXRSTlP//////////////////////////wAr2X3qAAAAvUlEQVR4nMWT3Q7CIAyFmVR0hVHoef93tWyySNyN82INNOXno6cE3Px83G+nzM3utP2H4sDK0SRQtUc7Kq5aB7iv0DEapXkeUGawbV+sSdSGarI4Kaogqy1oirWhqQ0+0RhyojUZpRzMKxXEmNe5yY5DyCKG8rJJ2spdUZn0jW4tyB6WxC2bb1lDxBdqFzOgCylChQdSqK0WhZDpMDEd7YKBEUXxWohMXvFoJbC3QRT1ZUR/tyvRK97w6U/3AqBKI3Ll7P5GAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCLStr_07" align="right" hspace="5" width="125" height="34" border="0">inkowski.
|
||
</font>In 1908, Minkowski offered a mathematically elegant way of
|
||
representing what is true from all inertial frames, according to
|
||
Einstein’s special theory of relativity, using only the coordinates
|
||
of any single inertial frame.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote7anc" href="#sdendnote7sym"><sup>vii</sup></a></sup>
|
||
His was a “graphic method” which he said allows us to “visualize”
|
||
what is going on. The key to his diagram was to represent time in the
|
||
same way as space, and that is what has led to the belief that what
|
||
exists is not space and time, but rather spacetime. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
Minkowski’s “spacetime diagrams”, time is represented as a
|
||
fourth dimension perpendicular to the three dimensions of space
|
||
(though when comparing two inertial frames, the spatial dimensions
|
||
can be reduced to one by a suitable orientation of their coordinate
|
||
frames). A material object at rest in space is represented,
|
||
therefore, as a line running parallel to the time axis, and a
|
||
material object with a constant, non-zero velocity is represented by
|
||
a line inclined slightly in the direction of motion. Units for
|
||
measuring time and space are usually chosen so that the path of light
|
||
in spacetime (the “light-line”, <i>t = x/c</i>) bisects the time
|
||
and space axes, making the “basic unit” of distance how far light
|
||
travels in a unit of time. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since the
|
||
second frame of reference is based on a moving object, we can think
|
||
of the tilted line representing its pathway as its time axis. From
|
||
such a moving reference frame, the location of an object at rest in
|
||
the first frame (such as one always located at its origin) would
|
||
change relative to the moving frame. So far, this diagram of space
|
||
and time would be acceptable in classical Newtonian physics, because
|
||
it represents a so-called Galilean transformation for the coordinates
|
||
of moving reference frames (in which distances in space would be
|
||
related as <i>x' = x – VT</i>, where <i>v</i> is their relative
|
||
velocity in the <i>x</i>-direction.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What
|
||
Minkowski discovered was that the Lorentz transformation for moving
|
||
reference frames could be represented by tilting the space line of
|
||
the moving frame equally in the opposite direction and lengthening
|
||
the units of time and space. That is, the time-line and the
|
||
space-line of the moving frame are inclined symmetrically around the
|
||
pathway of light. (See the comparison of the Newtonian Diagram of
|
||
Space and Time and Minkowski's Spacetime Diagra</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
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" name="SpacetimeDgm" align="bottom" width="637" height="350" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In either
|
||
the Newtonian or Minkowski's diagram, every point represents the
|
||
location of a possible <i>event </i>in space and time (called a
|
||
“world-point”), and superimposing a second reference frame makes
|
||
it possible to give such coordinates in either reference frame. From
|
||
the coordinates for any event in the first reference frame, we can
|
||
simply read off the coordinates for the same event in the moving
|
||
reference frame, and <i>vice versa</i>. In the case of event <i>E</i>,
|
||
for example, the coordinates in the first frame are <i>(2,1)</i>, and
|
||
in Minkowski's diagram, they are <i>(1.3,0.3)</i>. All possible
|
||
reference frames can be represented in this way, each with a
|
||
different tilt to its time-axis representing its velocity relative to
|
||
the first. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The two
|
||
reference frames in the Newtonian diagram have a very simple
|
||
relationship, because time coordinates are the same for both
|
||
reference frames and there is no change in the units of either time
|
||
or space. But Minkowski's spacetime diagram represents the Lorentz
|
||
transformation, and not only are the units of time and space
|
||
different, but the space-line of the moving reference frame is
|
||
inclined relative to the first reference frame. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Minkowski’s
|
||
spacetime diagram yields the same coordinates for the second
|
||
reference frame that are obtained from the Lorentz transformation
|
||
equations deduced by Einstein. Thus, it predicts that measurements of
|
||
the second inertial frame will reveal its clocks to be slowed down
|
||
and its measuring rods to be contracted in the x-direction. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But since
|
||
the Lorentz transformation works both ways, it is possible to start
|
||
with the second (tilted) reference frame and obtain coordinates for
|
||
events in the first reference frame. Thus, it predicts that the
|
||
moving observers will detect Lorentz distortions occurring in the
|
||
first frame. This symmetry about the relationship between inertial
|
||
reference frames makes it impossible to single out any particular
|
||
frame as being at absolute rest by comparing reference frames with
|
||
one another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Minkowski's
|
||
spacetime diagram may seem to mitigate the paradoxes resulting from
|
||
the symmetry of the relationship between members of any pair of
|
||
inertial reference frames, because it enables us to "picture"
|
||
two clocks both ticking away slower than the other and two measuring
|
||
rods both shorter than the other. It is just a result of how the
|
||
inertial reference frames are related to one another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But this
|
||
wonderful power of Minkowski's spacetime diagram to represent these
|
||
puzzling phenomena would not be possible, if the space-lines of
|
||
different reference frames had the same slope. The inclined
|
||
orientation of the space-line of the second inertial frame relative
|
||
to the first frame is crucial to representing the Lorentz
|
||
transformation, and it represents a disagreement between inertial
|
||
observers about simultaneity at a distance. That is, observers using
|
||
different inertial reference frames will disagree about which events
|
||
at a distance are simultaneous with the origins of their systems when
|
||
they pass by one another. That is the source of all the ontological
|
||
problems with the belief in spacetime. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
it is possible to interpret Minkowski's spacetime diagram as just a
|
||
useful mathematical device for predicting the measurements that would
|
||
be made on different inertial frames, that is what the Lorentz
|
||
transformation equations already do. The historical significance of
|
||
Minkowski's diagram is that it enables us to "picture" what
|
||
exists in a world where Einstein's special theory of relativity is
|
||
the deepest truth about the world. Thus, it leads to the belief in
|
||
spacetime (that is, "spatiotemporalism," as I called it in
|
||
<font face="Arial, sans-serif">Spatiomaterialism</font>, or
|
||
"substantivalism about spacetime," as it is called in the
|
||
literature.)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
belief in spacetime comes from realism about special relativity.
|
||
Scientific realism holds that theories in physics are true in the
|
||
sense of corresponding to what exists, and spacetime is what must
|
||
exist, if Einstein's special theory of relativity is the deepest
|
||
truth about the real nature of what exists as far as space and time
|
||
are concerned. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">With regard
|
||
to space and time, Newtonian realists would say that what their
|
||
theories correspond to is absolute space and absolute time, that is,
|
||
to a three dimensional space all of whose parts exists at the present
|
||
moment and endure simultaneously through time. But that is not what
|
||
Einstein's special theory of relativity corresponds to, because it
|
||
implies that observers on all possible inertial reference frames are
|
||
equally correct about the times and places of the events that occur
|
||
in the world, even though they disagree about the simultaneity of
|
||
events at a distance. What all the different inertial observers say
|
||
about the times and places of events can, however, be true at the
|
||
same time, only if what exists is represented by Minkowski's
|
||
spacetime diagram. Thus, spacetime is the natural answer to the
|
||
question about what corresponds to Einstein's special theory of
|
||
relativity. According to realists about special relativity, what
|
||
exists is spacetime, a four-dimensional entity that contains time as
|
||
a dimension and, thus, is not itself in time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Though
|
||
Einstein may merely have been arguing in the spirit of the empiricist
|
||
skepticism that prevailed in philosophy at that time, Minkowski made
|
||
it possible to give a realist interpretation of Einstein’s special
|
||
theory. His spacetime diagram showed how Einstein's theory could be
|
||
interpreted as a description of what really exists in the case of
|
||
space and time. Minkowski must have realized that he was giving a
|
||
realist interpretation of Einstein's special theory of relativity
|
||
when he introduced his spacetime diagrams; he said (</span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Minkowski23"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Minkowski</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">75)
|
||
that “space by itself, and time by itself, are doomed to fade away
|
||
into mere shadows, and only a kind of union of the two will preserve
|
||
an independent reality”. In any case, later in the twentieth
|
||
century, when logical positivism gave way to scientific realism,
|
||
Einstein’s skepticism about absolute space, if that is what it was,
|
||
spawned the belief in the existence of spacetime. Indeed, regardless
|
||
what Einstein may have believed in 1905, he apparently came to agree
|
||
that what he had discovered was spacetime. (See </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/Putnama.html"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Einstein</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">1966,
|
||
pp. 205-8). </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Scientific
|
||
realism is, however, a way of letting science determine one's
|
||
ontology. That is not the best way to decide which ontological theory
|
||
to accept, because the empirical method that science follows is to
|
||
infer to the best efficient-cause explanation, and that may not be
|
||
the best ontological-cause explanation. But we can see how realism
|
||
led to an ontology based on spacetime. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Einstein's
|
||
special theory of relativity was a better efficient-cause explanation
|
||
of the relevant phenomena than Lorentz's way of defending his
|
||
transformation equations, because it made all the same precise
|
||
predictions of measurements, but in a mathematically simpler way. As
|
||
an efficient-cause explanation, however, all that Einstein's special
|
||
theory requires is an <i>empirical equivalence</i> of inertial
|
||
reference frames. It assumes that inertial frames are experimentally
|
||
indistinguishable from one another, and it derives a description
|
||
about how they must appear to one another as parts of the same world
|
||
(where Maxwell's laws of electromagnetism hold). That relationship is
|
||
described by the Lorentz equations for transforming their coordinates
|
||
into one another, and it is represented by Minkowski's spacetime
|
||
diagram. But Einstein's was a mathematical argument, and no mechanism
|
||
or cause of the empirical equivalence was given. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">A realist
|
||
interpretation of special relativity goes beyond mere <i>empirical
|
||
equivalence </i>and holds that inertial frames are all <i>ontologically
|
||
equivalent</i>. If special relativity is the literal and deepest
|
||
truth about the world, then what observers on all possible inertial
|
||
reference frames believe must be true at the same time. That is to
|
||
hold, not merely that no experiment can distinguish any one inertial
|
||
frame from all the others as the absolute frame, but that there is
|
||
nothing about the nature of any inertial frame that makes it stand
|
||
out from all the others. That means, among other things, that no
|
||
assertion made by observers on one inertial frame can be true unless
|
||
the same kind of assertion made by observers on every other inertial
|
||
frame is also true. (Nor can any assertion made on one inertial frame
|
||
be false unless the same kind of assertion made on every other
|
||
inertial frame is also false.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The virtue
|
||
of Minkowski's spacetime diagram is that it enables us to "picture"
|
||
what exists in a world where inertial reference frames are all
|
||
<i>ontologically equivalent</i>. Though it may still be unclear what
|
||
spacetime is, Minkowski's diagram does allow us to believe that all
|
||
possible reference frames are related to what exists in the same way,
|
||
for it accommodates all possible standards of simultaneity at a
|
||
distance. But they can all correspond to what exists only if the
|
||
world is a four-dimensional entity all of whose parts in both space
|
||
and time exist in the same way. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It is clear
|
||
that this <i>ontological equivalence </i>of inertial frames is
|
||
incompatible with absolute space and time, because if space and time
|
||
were absolute, one inertial frame would be singled out ontologically
|
||
from all possible inertial frames. Only one of all possible inertial
|
||
frames would have the correct standard of simultaneity. Its location
|
||
in space and time could be shared by observers on many other inertial
|
||
frames, but none of their claims about which distant events are
|
||
simultaneous with their shared here and how would correspond to what
|
||
exists. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Einsteinians
|
||
do not use the term "ontological equivalence" to describe
|
||
the relationship between different inertial reference frames, but
|
||
that is what the belief in spacetime comes to. Most philosophers of
|
||
space and time simply take it for granted that they must accept
|
||
"substantivalism" about spacetime in order to interpret the
|
||
special theory as a description of the real nature of what exists. <sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote8anc" href="#sdendnote8sym"><sup>viii</sup></a></sup></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
believe in spacetime is to accept an ontology that is fundamentally
|
||
different from Lorentz's Newtonian view, and the difference can be
|
||
seen in what each implies about the nature of material objects. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Newtonian
|
||
physicists assumed that material objects are substances that endure
|
||
through time. They had to believe in absolute time, because the
|
||
endurance theory of substances presupposes that only the present
|
||
exists, or "presentism." (If the world is everything that
|
||
exists, then objects that exist at only one moment in their histories
|
||
must exist at the same time, for otherwise they would not be parts of
|
||
the same world.) And since Newtonian physicists believed that
|
||
material objects are all related to one another by (consistent)
|
||
spatial relations, they were also forced to believe in absolute
|
||
space. In a natural world, absolute time entails absolute space.
|
||
Hence, the Newtonian world was made up of material objects in three
|
||
dimensional space that endured through time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Spacetime,
|
||
on the other hand, is a four-dimensional entity. What exists is
|
||
spacetime and all the events that are located in spacetime. Since
|
||
time is an aspect of its essential structure, a spacetime world
|
||
cannot endure through time. Thus, spacetime points and spacetime
|
||
events must all exist in the same way independently of one another,
|
||
if they exist at all. There are no material objects in a spacetime
|
||
world, at least, not in the way that Lorentz believed. There are only
|
||
the spacetime events that seem to make up the histories of so-called
|
||
material objects. Thus, what is ordinarily called a "material
|
||
object" is just a continuous series of spacetime events in
|
||
spacetime. Its real nature is represented accurately by a “world
|
||
line” in a spacetime diagram, because each spacetime event making
|
||
up the history of a "material object" has an existence that
|
||
is distinct from all the others, just as one point on a line exists
|
||
distinctly from every other point on the line. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In short,
|
||
whereas a material object in a Newtonian world exists only at each
|
||
moment as it is present, but is identical across time, a so-called
|
||
material object in a spacetime world is a continuous series of
|
||
spacetime events, each of which exists eternally as a distinct part
|
||
of the world. This is the difference between the endurance and
|
||
perdurance theory of substances, and between the presentist and
|
||
eternalist theory about time and existence. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Scientific
|
||
realists sometimes assume that they can believe that Einstein's
|
||
special theory of relativity corresponds to what exists without
|
||
denying that they are themselves substances that endure through time
|
||
by holding that only objects at a distance from themselves must exist
|
||
the same way at all different moments in their histories. But that is
|
||
not possible, if they believe that the truth of Einstein's special
|
||
theory means that it corresponds to what exists for every observer.
|
||
If Einstein's theory is universally true, then it must be true for
|
||
inertial observers located elsewhere in the universe, and the only
|
||
way that different inertial observes at a distance from us can all be
|
||
correct about which moment in our local history is simultaneous with
|
||
their passing by one another is if the moments in our local history
|
||
all exist in the same way. We must perdure, rather than endure,
|
||
because we are material objects at a distance for inertial observers
|
||
elsewhere in the universe. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What
|
||
Minkowski's “union” of space and time means ontologically is,
|
||
therefore, that presentism is false. The denial of presentism is such
|
||
a serious obstacle to an ontological explanation of the world that,
|
||
in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Spatiomaterialism</font>, we were
|
||
led to reject spacetime substantivalism (or "spatiotemporalism"),
|
||
promising to justify it later by showing how it is possible for space
|
||
and time to be absolute, despite the Einsteinian revolution. That is
|
||
the argument we take up in the next section. But first, let us
|
||
consider briefly why physics has ignored the ontological problems
|
||
with eternalism. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
explains the ascendancy of the belief in spacetime is, once again,
|
||
the empirical method of science and the physicists' addiction to
|
||
mathematics as a means of practicing it. Behind Minkowski's spacetime
|
||
diagram lies an elegant equation that has proved to be irresistibly
|
||
attractive. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Minkowski
|
||
provided a method of constructing in our own spacetime coordinate
|
||
frame the spacetime coordinate frame that would be used by observers
|
||
on an object moving relative to us. We may call their world-line the
|
||
“moving timeline” (<i>t = x/v</i>), because it will be the time
|
||
axis that moving observers use for their spacetime coordinate frame. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img 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" name="Minkowski" align="bottom" width="420" height="330" border="0"></font></p>
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<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
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<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Minkowski
|
||
formulated the conclusion of Einstein’s special theory as an
|
||
equation that describes a hyperboloid in four dimensional spacetime:
|
||
<i>1</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup> <i>= c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>t</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>- x</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>- y</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>- z</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><font face="Uncial, Times New Roman, serif"><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>.
|
||
</i></font></font>(When we orient our x-axis in the direction of the
|
||
others’ motion, we can ignore the other two dimensions and it
|
||
reduces to <i>1</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>= c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>t</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>- x</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>.)
|
||
(It is the red curve in the diagram depicting how Minkowski's
|
||
spacetime diagram is constructed.) The intersection of Minkowski’s
|
||
hyperboloid curve with our time-axis is the unit of time in our frame
|
||
(<i>t = 1</i>), and the unit of distance (in “basic units”) is
|
||
the distance in our frame that light travels during that period of
|
||
time (<i>x = 1</i>). The moving timeline (the time-axis of the moving
|
||
spacetime frame) also intersects the curve described by Minkowski’s
|
||
equation, and the distance of that point along our time-axis is the
|
||
length of a unit of time on the moving coordinate frame according to
|
||
our clocks. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As the
|
||
diagram shows, moving clocks are slowed down in our frame. The other
|
||
axis of the moving spacetime frame, the “moving space-line”, is
|
||
also deduced from Minkowski’s equation. Moving space-lines all have
|
||
the same slope as the tangent to Minkowski’s curve at the point of
|
||
the moving timeline’s intersection with his curve. (Its slope is
|
||
<i>v/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>;
|
||
the points on any line with this slope are simultaneous in the moving
|
||
spacetime frame.) Finally, the unit of distance on the moving
|
||
space-line is how far light travels in the moving frame during a unit
|
||
of time on the moving frame. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Inertial
|
||
frames are all equivalent on Minkowski’s theory, as on Einstein’s,
|
||
since Minkowski’s equation determines precisely the same hyperbola
|
||
in every moving inertial frame constructed this way in our own
|
||
spacetime coordinate frame. That is, their hyperbolas all coincide.
|
||
In particular, the same procedure <i>on the moving coordinate </i>frame,
|
||
using the same equation (and taking the velocity to be <i>-v</i>
|
||
along the x'-axis), produces the original coordinate frame. Or more
|
||
abstractly, Minkowski’s equation can be generalized as a measure,
|
||
<i>s</i>, of the separation between any two events that is the same
|
||
in every inertial frame, despite variations in their coordinates for
|
||
particular events: <i>s</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>= c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>t</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>- x</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>- y</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>- z</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>.
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In
|
||
Minkowski’s equation, the parallel between the representation of
|
||
space and time is remarkable. Time would be just another spatial
|
||
dimension, except that it lacks a minus sign (and needs the velocity
|
||
of light, <i>c</i>, to make units of time commensurable with
|
||
distance). Indeed, that is how Minkowski includes relativistic mass
|
||
increase. His equations’s form can be used to state the <i>laws of
|
||
nature </i>that hold true in every inertial frame. In “four vector
|
||
physics”, or “covariant” formulations of laws of physics, the
|
||
energy of an object, <i>E</i>, takes the place of time and the three
|
||
dimensions of momentum, <i>p</i>, take the place of the three spatial
|
||
dimensions, so that the objects’ rest mass, <i>m</i><sub><i>0</i></sub>,
|
||
rather than the separation, is what is the same about the object in
|
||
all inertial frames: <i>m</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>o</i></font></sub><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>4 </i></font></sup><i>= E</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2 </i></font></sup><i>- p</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>x</i></font></sub><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>- p</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>y</i></font></sub><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
<i>- p</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>z</i></font></sub><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>.
|
||
The mathematics of four vector physics is so elegant and suggestive
|
||
about the relationship of energy and momentum that it is not
|
||
surprising that physicists now find themselves committed to the
|
||
belief in spacetime. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">By
|
||
comparison with Lorentz’s ad hoc attempts to patch up classical
|
||
physics in the wake of the Michelson-Morley experiment, Einstein’s
|
||
argument was astonishingly simple and elegant, making it seem that
|
||
Einstein had a deeper insight into these phenomena. And since
|
||
Minkowski provided a diagram that made it possible to represent what
|
||
special relativity implies about the world independently of
|
||
particular reference frames, it is hardly surprising that the belief
|
||
in spacetime has become the orthodox ontology in physics and the
|
||
philosophy of science. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
acceptance of Einstein’s special theory of relativity involved,
|
||
however, a remarkable change in the empirical method of physics, for
|
||
it involved the abandonment of the requirement that explanations in
|
||
physics be intuitively intelligible. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To follow
|
||
the empirical method is to infer to the best efficient-cause
|
||
explanation. Even in classical physics, theories were highly
|
||
mathematical and confirmation was most convincing when they predicted
|
||
surprising, quantitatively precise measurements. But since classical
|
||
physicists still believed in absolute space and time, they also
|
||
expected the best scientific theories to be intuitively intelligible,
|
||
in the sense that it was possible to think coherently about what was
|
||
happening in spatial imagination. But intuitive intelligibility was
|
||
no longer possible when the best scientific theory required giving up
|
||
the belief in absolute space and time. That was undeniably a loss,
|
||
but physicists felt that they had to grow up and recognize that their
|
||
deepest commitment was to judging the best theory by which is the
|
||
simplest and most complete prediction of measurements. Since this
|
||
came from mathematical theories, abandoning the requirement that
|
||
physical explanations be intuitively intelligible left them addicted
|
||
to mathematics. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
forced us to promise to explain how Einstein's special and general
|
||
theories of relativity could be true in a world where space and time
|
||
are absolute was the commitment of contemporary physics to the belief
|
||
in spacetime. We had to take out that "mortgage" on
|
||
spatiomaterialism as the foundation for ontological philosophy,
|
||
because spatiomaterialism is committed to absolute space and time.
|
||
This section will pay it off by showing how how the special theory of
|
||
relativity can be true in a spatiomaterial world.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Let
|
||
us recall, first, our reason for believing that space and time are
|
||
absolute. We were inferring to the best ontological explanation of
|
||
the world. That is not the method of empirical science, because an
|
||
ontological theory is a theory about the nature of what exists, not
|
||
only about what happens to it. The first basic issue about the nature
|
||
of what exists has to do with the nature of time, and we concluded
|
||
that we had to prefer presentism to eternalism because it alone could
|
||
explain our observations about how the present moment is different
|
||
from the past and future. Presentism holds that only the present
|
||
exists. The past and the future do not exist. <i>To be is to be in
|
||
time.</i> </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We know by
|
||
reflecting on ourselves as agents that the future does not exist,
|
||
because if it did, we would not be able to control what happens in
|
||
the world. We act as we do in order to make the future different from
|
||
what it would be otherwise, and that would simply not be possible, if
|
||
the future already existed. Every event must aleady be determined, if
|
||
eternalism is true, </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Reflection
|
||
should be considered relevant evidence about the nature of what
|
||
exists in the world, since the beings who do the reflecting are
|
||
clear;y parts of that world. But contemporary physicists cannot
|
||
escape this empirical falisfication of the belief in spacetime. There
|
||
is also plenty of evidence for those who insist that only peception
|
||
can supply the empirical data for choosing among theories. It is
|
||
found in our perception of change. To perceive change, for example,
|
||
to see a book falling from a shelf, is the recognize that certain
|
||
spatial relations are going out of existence and other spatial
|
||
relations are comming into existence. Defined as properties coming
|
||
into existence and going out of existence, change might be called
|
||
"presentist change," in order to distinguish it from
|
||
"eternalist change," or change defined merely as objects
|
||
having different properties or relations at different times. Anyone
|
||
who perceives presentist change has plenty of observational evidence
|
||
that only the present exists because properties (and spatial
|
||
relations) cannot go out of existence, if the past still exists. Nor
|
||
can properties (or spatial relations) come into existence, if the
|
||
future already exists. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If
|
||
eternalism were true, the present would not be different from the
|
||
past or the future in this basic way, and thus, eternalism cannot
|
||
explain what we observe about the nature of existence in perceiving
|
||
persentist change. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Presentism
|
||
is an indispensible assumption for any ontology that hopes to be
|
||
explanatory, for it allows one to hold that what exists are
|
||
substances that endure through time and, thereby, to explain what is
|
||
found in the world as being constituted by basic substances and the
|
||
manner in which they exist together as a world. All truths about the
|
||
world, including truths about the past and the future, are thereby
|
||
reducible to facts about what exists now. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">On the
|
||
other hand, if eternalism were true, one would have to postulate many
|
||
more basic entities in order to explain the world, because one would
|
||
have to postulate distinct basic entities for every moment in the
|
||
history of every material object found in the world. Though such
|
||
basic entities would not be substances in our sense, they would serve
|
||
as the basic ontological causes in an eternalist explanation of the
|
||
world, because they would constitute substances in our sense. The
|
||
spacetime events that make up the world-lines of ordinary objects in
|
||
Minkowski spacetime diagrams would be basic entities in this sense. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Eternalism
|
||
is what makes the belief in spacetime unacceptable to empirically
|
||
minded thinkers who want to know the truth about the nature of what
|
||
exists. Empirical ontology seeks to discover the theory that
|
||
corresponds to the basic nature of what exists, and since we have
|
||
observational evidence that existence is what makes present different
|
||
from the past and the future, any ontological theory that denies that
|
||
fact is not very likely to be true. Indeed, it is empirically
|
||
falsified by our perception of presentist change and our reflection
|
||
on ourselves as agents. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though
|
||
“change” may be defined in terms of the difference between events
|
||
located earlier and those located later on a world line, that is not
|
||
presentist change (since there is nothing coming into existence or
|
||
going out of existence over time). It is eternalist change.
|
||
Presentist change entials eternalist change (since propositions about
|
||
the future and the past can be reduced to propositions about the
|
||
substances that exist now), but eternalist change does not entail
|
||
presentist change (since there is no way to distinguish the present
|
||
from the past and the future). Thus, there are observational facts
|
||
that a presentist ontology, like spatiomaterialism, can explan that
|
||
cannot be explained by any eternalist ontology, such as the belief in
|
||
spacetime. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">I<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="EpistCmt" align="right" hspace="5" width="202" height="20" border="0">t
|
||
is not the case that this problem about the nature of time has gone
|
||
entirely unnoticed in the literature. </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Putnam</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">[1967]
|
||
noticed that substantivalism about spacetime contradicts our ordinary
|
||
assumption about time (that only the present exists). But he focused
|
||
on the incompatibility between the future being already determined
|
||
and our view of ourselves as agents. Since he does not recognize
|
||
reflection as observational evidence about the nature of what exists,
|
||
he simply accepts the belief in spaceime as another case of
|
||
scientific discoveries correcting ordinary beliefs. Putnam's point
|
||
was also made by </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Rietdijk</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">[1966].
|
||
</span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Worries
|
||
about having to hold that we are suffering a massive delusion in
|
||
believing that the present is radically different from all the other
|
||
moments in time are expressed by John </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Post</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">(1987,
|
||
Chapter 3) and Roger </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Penrose</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">(1989,
|
||
pp. 442ff). But it does not lead them to doubt that spacetime
|
||
corresponds to the real nature of what exists. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Maxwell</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1985],
|
||
pp. 23-43, stands out as the only philosopher who sees the
|
||
incompatibility of substantivalism about spacetime with our
|
||
observation of how the present is different from the past and the
|
||
future as justifying our rejection of the belief in spacetime in
|
||
favor of the belief in absolute time. His view has not gathered
|
||
support in the literature.</span></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Others,
|
||
like </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Stein</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1968,
|
||
1991], have tried to avoid having to choose between the belief in
|
||
spacetime and the openness of the future by taking the truth of
|
||
Einstein's special theory of relativity to be relative to the “here
|
||
and now.” He uses the velocity-of-light limit on causal influences
|
||
between distant events to distinguish between spacetime events with a
|
||
time-like relationship to the here and now (with the past being those
|
||
events that could affect us here and now and the future being those
|
||
that we could affect) from spacetime events with as space-like
|
||
relationship to the here and now (namely those spacetime events that
|
||
we could not affect and that could not affect us without effects
|
||
traveling faster than the velocity of light). That allows Stein to
|
||
take spacetime events that are related in a space-like way to the
|
||
here and now as neither determined nor undetermined, but
|
||
“indeterminate.” However, if relativity to the here and now does
|
||
abandon the requirement that theories in physics be true at the same
|
||
time for observers located everywhere in the universe, it does give
|
||
up ontology as a theory about the nature of the substances that
|
||
constitute the existence of everything in the world, for there is no
|
||
way to explain indeterminate spacetime events by taking spacetime
|
||
events to be the basic entities that constitute the world (much less
|
||
by taking substances enduring through time to constitute the world). </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Similar
|
||
objections hold for the attempt by </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Smith</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">([1993],
|
||
p. 4) to solve these ontological issues by reducing existence to
|
||
“being real to.” What exists cannot be relative to any particular
|
||
subject without giving up naturalism and accepting an ontology that
|
||
makes subjective minds basic and reduces objects in space to them in
|
||
some way. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Mathematics
|
||
also obscures this issue in the literature. A logical analysis of the
|
||
difference between invariant and ontological temporal relations is
|
||
offered by </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Rakic</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1997],
|
||
but he apparently does not recognize that in introducing the
|
||
ontological relation R, he is, in effect, adding Newtonian absolute
|
||
time to STR. He does not see the ontological significance of his
|
||
mathematical arugment. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the face of the prima facie difficulties with accepting the belief in
|
||
spacetime, it is surprising that there has been so little interest in
|
||
replacing Einstein's special theory of relativity with an explanation
|
||
based on the belief in absolute space and time. And it is all the
|
||
more surprising, because the possibility of a “Newtonian” theory
|
||
the phenomena covered by special relativity is widely admitted. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">For
|
||
example, it is admitted by </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Str"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Zaher</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1989],
|
||
</span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Str"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Sklar</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1992],
|
||
and </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Str"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Dorato</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1996],
|
||
and it is even defended by </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Str"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Maxwell</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1985],
|
||
though for different reasons than will be given here. The equivalence
|
||
of such a “Newtonian” theory to Einstein’s special theory is
|
||
recognized by </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Str"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Maxwell</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1985]
|
||
and </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Str"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Smith</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1993],
|
||
shown mathematically by </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Str"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Prokhovnik</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1985]
|
||
and </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Str"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Bell</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1987],
|
||
and explained in a more intuitive way by </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Str"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Scribner</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[1989].
|
||
</span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">But
|
||
commentators on Einstein’s special theory (such as </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Str"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Sklar</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">1992,
|
||
pp. 27-30) often dismiss this possibility as a mere “compensatory
|
||
theory”, as if it were a crutch for those who feel somehow
|
||
psychologically crippled by the loss of an intuitively intelligible
|
||
explanation, whereas our reason for believing in absolute space is
|
||
that it is required by empirical ontology, given the observational
|
||
evidence for presentism.</span></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Spacetime
|
||
is not, however, the only possible ontological explanation of the
|
||
phenomenon described by Einstein's special theory of relativity. It
|
||
is also possible to explain <i>all </i>those phenomena on the
|
||
assumption that space and matter are substances enduring through
|
||
time, even though that entails that space and time are absolute. We
|
||
need only assume that space and matter are so related as basic
|
||
substances constituting the world that the velocity of material
|
||
objects through substantival space causes distortions in them in
|
||
which clocks are slowed down, lengths are contracted in the direction
|
||
of absolute motion, masses increase and forcefields are flattend in
|
||
the direction of motion (all at the usual rate). These are the
|
||
distortions that are implicit in the conclusions of Einstein’s
|
||
argument, but in the following argument the order is reversed.
|
||
Instead of assuming the principle of relativity and deriving the
|
||
distortions as consequences, we shall assume the Lorentz distortions
|
||
as basic laws of physics and derive the principle of relativity—that
|
||
is, explain all aspects of the empirical equivalence of inertial
|
||
reference frames by the Lorentz distortions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There is
|
||
probably an interesting story to be told about why Newtonian
|
||
physicists did not defend such a theory about the empirical
|
||
equivalence of inertial frames when it was still a live issue.
|
||
Lorentz did explain the negative result of the Michelson-Morley
|
||
experiment by the distortions he discovered, but he did even try to
|
||
explain the symmetry in the transformation equations he used to
|
||
describe them, because he thought of them as merely a convenient
|
||
mathematical device for describing the effects of absolute motion on
|
||
material objects. The reason that other physicists did not extend
|
||
Lorentz's basically physical approach to explain why comparisons
|
||
between inertial reference frames could not detect absolute rest and
|
||
motion may be the devastating effects of World War I on the talent of
|
||
that generation. An entire generation of potential physicists was
|
||
wiped out, and after the war, the relative ease of reaching
|
||
intersubjective agreement about mathematical arguments may have
|
||
driven out the more divisive Newtonian arguments. To explain special
|
||
relativity in terms of absolute space and absolute time requires
|
||
intutive understanding, and such physical explanations could not be
|
||
constructed without solving paradoxes about pairs of clocks both
|
||
going slower than the other and light having the same velocity in
|
||
different inertial frames. It also seemed ad hoc to postulate Lorentz
|
||
distortions, since their only role in physics seemed to be making it
|
||
impossible to detect absolute rest and motion. Einstein's elegant
|
||
mathematical argument may have seemed superior in the young, abstract
|
||
minds that picked up the discipline after the war untutored by the
|
||
lost generation of Newtonian physicists. Thus, most students may
|
||
simply have been taught Einsteinian equations from the beginning of
|
||
their graduate careers, and those who demanded a more intuitive
|
||
understanding of what they meant were weeded out as not being
|
||
intellectually fit to do physics. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
giving the spatiomaterialist explanation of the truth of the special
|
||
theory of relativity, I will start by following in the footsteps of
|
||
Lorentz. But the spatiomaterialist explanation disagrees with Lorentz
|
||
about what is required to explain special relativity, because it
|
||
recognizes that it is necessary to explain not only the negative
|
||
result of the Michelson-Morley experiment, but also why absolute
|
||
motion and rest cannot be detected by comparing inertial frames with
|
||
one another. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
inability to determine the absolute velocity of a material object by
|
||
measuring the velocity of light relative to it is what Lorentz
|
||
explained by postulating the slowing down of clocks and the shrinking
|
||
of measuring rods in the measuring apparatus. Lorentz and Poincaré
|
||
attempted to explain these distortions by the interaction of material
|
||
objects with an ether, and I will suggest in the final section how
|
||
they might be explained ontologically (by the unit-like, or quantum,
|
||
electromagnetic interactions that constitute material objects in a
|
||
spatiomaterial world like ours). In order to explain not only the
|
||
kinematic phenomena on which Lorentz focused, but also the dynamic
|
||
phenomena that make the laws of physics apply the same way on all
|
||
inertial frames, it is necessary to recognize two additional
|
||
distortions: an increase in mass and a flattening of forcefields in
|
||
the direction of motion. But to focus on explaining the Lorentz
|
||
distortions, even including all four, is to fail to recognize that
|
||
there is another, quite puzzling aspect of the phenomena described by
|
||
Einstein’s special theory that needs to be explained.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
puzzling aspect is the symmetry that holds between members of each
|
||
pair of inertial frames. It is implied by the Lorentz transformation
|
||
equations, and it is an essential part of the principle of relativity
|
||
as the empirical equivalence of all inertial reference frames, for it
|
||
implies that absolute rest and motion cannot be detected by
|
||
comparting inertial frames with one another. Explaining this symmetry
|
||
will require a two-step argument. The first step is to show that the
|
||
effect of following Einstein’s definition of simultaneity at a
|
||
distance in absolute space is to mis-synchronize clocks on a moving
|
||
inertial frame in a certain way. The resulting disagreement about the
|
||
simultaneity of events at a distance is widely recognized, but its
|
||
role in causing the symmetry between inertial frames is not. Hence,
|
||
the second step is to show how the mis-synchronization combines with
|
||
the Lorentz distortions themselves to make it appear that the Lorentz
|
||
distortions are always occurring symmetrically in the other inertial
|
||
frame.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote9anc" href="#sdendnote9sym"><sup>ix</sup></a></sup></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLStr_08" align="right" hspace="5" width="300" height="29" border="0">he
|
||
Lorentz Distortions</b></font><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">. </font>To
|
||
hold that space is a substance enduring though time is to hold that
|
||
space is absolute, and we have assumed that space is the medium of
|
||
light transmission. There is an inherent motion in space that gives
|
||
light a constant velocity relative to absolute space. On that basis,
|
||
the spatiomaterialist theory must explain why inertial frames all
|
||
appear to be alike, that is, why the velocity of light seems to be
|
||
the same and why the laws of physics all apply the same way in every
|
||
inertial frame. This "local equivalence" among inertial
|
||
frames must be explained as a mere appearance, because motion across
|
||
absolute space must change the velocity of light relative to the
|
||
moving object, as suggested by the analogy to the boat moving through
|
||
ripples in a pond. And the laws of physics describing interactions
|
||
among material objects (dynamic phenomena) make different predictions
|
||
for material objects with different velocities. In order for it to be
|
||
impossible to detect absolute motion, moving material objects (that
|
||
is, objects with with rest mass) must be distorted in certain ways. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
are four kinds of distortions in material objects with high absolute
|
||
velocity: a slowing down of clocks, a contraction of lengths in the
|
||
direction of motion, an increase in the mass of moving objects, and
|
||
an decrease in the strength of forces in the direction of motion.
|
||
These are what I will call the "Lorentz distortions." Only
|
||
the first two were actually discovered by Lorentz, but all of them
|
||
are required for the same kinds of reasons. Though I will not give a
|
||
formal mathematical argument, enough will be said about each to
|
||
explain their quantitative aspects. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The rate
|
||
involved in all these distortions is
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image7" align="bottom" width="46" height="18" border="0">,
|
||
where <i>v</i> is absolute velocity. This is the rate of distortion
|
||
that is required to explain why Michelson and Morley were unable to
|
||
detect absolute motion by using an interferometer to measure the
|
||
velocity of light. This apparatus reflects light from two mirrors
|
||
lying in mutually perpendicular directions, and the velocity of light
|
||
in each direction is determined by measuring the period required for
|
||
each two-way trip (by the interference of the waves coming from the
|
||
two directions). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAFoAAAAPCAMAAABTNSh0AAAARVBMVEUAAAANDAkcGBMzAAAqJR04MSZJAABGPjBmAAB2AABjV0NxY01/cFeOfGGciWqqlXS4on7HrojVu5Hjx5v8A/sAAAD///+KU6y6AAAAFXRSTlP//////////////////////////wAr2X3qAAAAs0lEQVR4nNWQ2Q4DIQhFu0htQQaU///XXmd5aDKZZro8zA0qETwCp9NBFVtyrNo2U9a1oInOxK4rGRQcYqOr3m0vuiOiWh2KVsFzm2itFAoF2qW0IFarCGGZvP3jBQ1espwthbNRH0LWgRARMxtycHF4iDdhJO1ES28erEQXmy5nNFE/YMtGH6ILpt6rTgsaPcxohNi/QDcU2YepiSf06FhisZaJYx/65zow+oh63G/X/+gJQdE7CIFeCRoAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="TtsOtkCLStr_09" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="33" border="0">ime
|
||
dilation. </font>Assume that one mirror lies forward in the direction
|
||
of absolute motion with the other transverse to it. The need for
|
||
physical interactions to slow down on moving objects can be seen by
|
||
considering what happens on the transverse pathway as the apparatus
|
||
moves through absolute space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
transverse pathway of the interferometer is, in effect, a “light
|
||
clock”, using the velocity of light to measure time. Since the
|
||
velocity of light in absolute space is fixed, the light in a light
|
||
clock with absolute motion must travel farther than in a light clock
|
||
at rest, and that means that the moving light clock is slowed down.
|
||
It is slowed down at the same rate that all physical processes must
|
||
be slowed down in order to keep this effect from being detectable.
|
||
(See diagram of the path of light on the transverse light clock.) </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="StrTranClk" align="bottom" width="437" height="218" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Light
|
||
traveling along the transverse pathway must go farther than it would,
|
||
were the apparatus at absolute rest, because to return to its
|
||
starting place, the light must also keep up with the apparatus, which
|
||
is also moving through space all the time that the light is
|
||
traveling. To observers on the moving object, light seems to travel
|
||
directly to the mirror and back, but its path in absolute space is
|
||
actually along the hypotenuse (<i>ct</i>) of the triangle formed by
|
||
the transverse pathway (<i>L</i>) and the motion of the starting
|
||
point in absolute space (<i>vt</i>). This increases the period
|
||
required for the two-way trip.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The period
|
||
is increased at the usual rate (except as a function of absolute,
|
||
rather than relative, velocity). The rate is obtained by Pythagoras’
|
||
theorem for the right triangle depicted in the diagram (<i>L</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2
|
||
</i></font></sup><i>+ v</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>t</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2
|
||
</i></font></sup><i>= c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>t</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>)
|
||
and solving for <i>t.</i> Since <i>L/c</i> is the period it would
|
||
take light to travel to the mirror at absolute rest, the period
|
||
required for <i>each leg </i>on the moving apparatus is
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADgAAAAiCAMAAAA9FerRAAADAFBMVEUAAAABAQECAgIDAwMEBAQFBQUGBgYHBwcICAgJCQkKCgoLCwsMDAwNDQ0ODg4PDw8QEBARERESEhITExMUFBQVFRUWFhYXFxcYGBgZGRkaGhobGxscHBwdHR0eHh4fHx8gICAhISEiIiIjIyMkJCQlJSUmJiYnJycoKCgpKSkqKiorKyssLCwtLS0uLi4vLy8wMDAxMTEyMjIzMzM0NDQ1NTU2NjY3Nzc4ODg5OTk6Ojo7Ozs8PDw9PT0+Pj4/Pz9AQEBBQUFCQkJDQ0NERERFRUVGRkZHR0dISEhJSUlKSkpLS0tMTExNTU1OTk5PT09QUFBRUVFSUlJTU1NUVFRVVVVWVlZXV1dYWFhZWVlaWlpbW1tcXFxdXV1eXl5fX19gYGBhYWFiYmJjY2NkZGRlZWVmZmZnZ2doaGhpaWlqampra2tsbGxtbW1ubm5vb29wcHBxcXFycnJzc3N0dHR1dXV2dnZ3d3d4eHh5eXl6enp7e3t8fHx9fX1+fn5/f3+AgICBgYGCgoKDg4OEhISFhYWGhoaHh4eIiIiJiYmKioqLi4uMjIyNjY2Ojo6Pj4+QkJCRkZGSkpKTk5OUlJSVlZWWlpaXl5eYmJiZmZmampqbm5ucnJydnZ2enp6fn5+goKChoaGioqKjo6OkpKSlpaWmpqanp6eoqKipqamqqqqrq6usrKytra2urq6vr6+wsLCxsbGysrKzs7O0tLS1tbW2tra3t7e4uLi5ubm6urq7u7u8vLy9vb2+vr6/v7/AwMDBwcHCwsLDw8PExMTFxcXGxsbHx8fIyMjJycnKysrLy8vMzMzNzc3Ozs7Pz8/Q0NDR0dHS0tLT09PU1NTV1dXW1tbX19fY2NjZ2dna2trb29vc3Nzd3d3e3t7f39/g4ODh4eHi4uLj4+Pk5OTl5eXm5ubn5+fo6Ojp6enq6urr6+vs7Ozt7e3u7u7v7+/w8PDx8fHy8vLz8/P09PT19fX29vb39/f4+Pj5+fn6+vr7+/v8/Pz9/f3+/v7////isF19AAABQUlEQVR4nLWVsXXEIAyG/5I2tQsP4JINvEUWSE19Lb37a9NnBDZgADbICC4JCMOBAefs5PSejUD6kAwCw14UvAj8OgtiCq04DYbmrZ9LG1TZcCdoG5Q8GQc76udB5Nr3iYiIb8h2oh2Q+1HuP465l3ke9HFuiwcHJo/XvRAt5YeMOfZ28s8lp7Z23TusVUdFUAAMDakG5xkzKf+SKul1UJZpqVODVyPOF0HZLa9fwE1VtZMYs46RTbBZYfo2PFzXZb8dbD9TRuaFp3nyg0mqKEGX9/tm8o+QNjtzFp+kh4mK4+4ThyInE5x5cMtxmm2fqTtgWDGBPoRukqksAMRYsQ/Q6nLuzpU3uPtOk00rW4AmaHwpI963+T08FtkgtbSorOTS7tAFizsfG6DX5HH15MYIavAjpJaUNztVqa/7zfXlB+4unKjy/SyUAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="StrEqLc" align="bottom" width="56" height="34" border="0"><i>.</i></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">L<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLStr_10" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="35" border="0">ength
|
||
contraction. </font>The need for a contraction of the size of
|
||
material objects in the direction of motion can be seen by
|
||
considering what must happen to light clocks oriented in the
|
||
direction of motion in order for absolute motion to be undetectable.
|
||
Unless their lengths were also to shrink, it would still be possible
|
||
to detect absolute motion by comparing the longitudinal light clock
|
||
with the transverse light clock, because the former would be even
|
||
slower than the later. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
addition to the distance back and forth along the longitudinal
|
||
pathway, the light on the longitudinal must also cover, as we have
|
||
seen, all the space that the apparatus itself travels during the
|
||
period of its two-way trip. But in the longitudinal direction, there
|
||
is a new factor at work, because the two legs of its trip are
|
||
unequal. Light must travel farther in absolute space on the outward
|
||
leg in the direction of the apparatus’ motion than on the return
|
||
leg, because of the motion of the apparatus in absolute space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">That
|
||
means that, relative to the apparatus, the effective velocity of
|
||
light toward the (forward) mirror is slower than when coming back. On
|
||
the outward leg, the velocity of light relative to the apparatus is <i>c
|
||
- v</i>, and on the return leg it is <i>c + v</i>. But light spends
|
||
<i>more time </i>traveling <i>slower </i>in the outward direction
|
||
than it does traveling <i>faster </i>on the return leg, and since the
|
||
effect on the total time of travel depends on how long it travels at
|
||
each velocity, it does not make up all the time lost during the
|
||
outward leg on the return leg. The whole period required would be
|
||
longer than the period required on the transverse pathway, because
|
||
with equal distances to cover to the forward mirror and back, it
|
||
spends a longer time going at the slower (at <i>c-v</i>) than it
|
||
spends going faster (at <i>c+v</i>). That would make absolute motion
|
||
detectable, unless the measuring rod were contracted. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If material
|
||
objects also shrink (at the usual rate), the measurements made by the
|
||
interferometer will be the same regardless of its absolute motion and
|
||
the principle of relativity will seem to be true. The required rate
|
||
is easy to calculate because the new length, <i>L'</i>, must be such
|
||
that the period for the two way trip, <i>L'/(c - v) + L'(c + v),</i>
|
||
is equal to the period for a two-way transverse trip derived in the
|
||
foregoing discussion of time dilation. Simply solve for <i>L'</i>. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
two remaining distortions follow from the temporal and spatial (or
|
||
“kinematic”) distortions, for unless there were further
|
||
distortions, Newton’s laws of motion, notably his second law (<i>F
|
||
= ma</i>), would be false and the deviation from what it requires
|
||
would be a measure of absolute velocity. Time dilation and length
|
||
contraction are both relevant to dynamic phenomena, because both are
|
||
involved in the acceleration of material objects, which Newton’s
|
||
law says is proportional to the force exerted on them. Thus, there
|
||
are two dynamic distortions, an increase in mass and a decrease of
|
||
the force field in the direction of motion, corresponding to the
|
||
kinematic distortions.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">M<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLStr_11" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="33" border="0">ass
|
||
increase. </font>The necessity of an increase in mass follows from
|
||
the temporal distortion, because unless the masses of material
|
||
objects increase at the usual rate with absolute motion, Newton’s
|
||
second law of motion (<i>F = ma</i>) will be false and physical
|
||
processes will not take place the same way in absolute motion as at
|
||
rest. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">For
|
||
example, dynamic clocks, such as pendulum clocks and wind-up alarm
|
||
clocks, which depend on the acceleration of material objects to
|
||
measure time, would disagree with light clocks, and the difference
|
||
between the two kinds of clocks would be a measure of absolute
|
||
motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Consider a
|
||
dynamic clock oriented in the transverse direction of the inertial
|
||
frame’s absolute motion. Since light clocks are slowed down, the
|
||
dynamic clock would seem to be speeded up, since the pendulum (or
|
||
whatever) would be accelerating over the whole distance just as
|
||
quickly as it does at rest. The only way the dynamic clock can be
|
||
slowed down to match the slowing down of the light clock is for the
|
||
mass being accelerated to be increased at the same rate the light
|
||
clock is slowed down. Thus, mass must increase at the rate as a
|
||
function of absolute velocity as time is slowed down. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">L<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLStr_12" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="35" border="0">ongitudinal
|
||
decrease in the force field.</font> The necessity of a decrease in
|
||
forces exerted in the direction of motion follows from the spatial
|
||
distortion, the shrinkage of measuring rods in the direction of
|
||
motion, for unless the longitudinal force field decreases with
|
||
absolute motion at the usual rate, Newton’s second law of motion
|
||
will still be false and deviations from its predictions will be a
|
||
measure of absolute motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Consider
|
||
a dynamic clock oriented in the direction of the inertial frame’s
|
||
motion. Although the mass of the pendulum (or whatever) will be
|
||
increased at the usual rate and, thus, slowed down, it will still be
|
||
accelerating under the force at the same rate for the same period as
|
||
the transverse dynamic clock. But since measuring rods are contracted
|
||
in the direction of motion, the pendulum would still seem to be
|
||
accelerating faster, because it would seem to be going farther in the
|
||
same length of time. In order for absolute motion to be undetectable,
|
||
the pendulum in the longitudinal direction must accelerate more
|
||
slowly over space. But it is not possible for this acceleration to be
|
||
slowed down by a further increase in mass, since mass is a scalar
|
||
quantity, which does not depend on the direction of motion, and only
|
||
acceleration in the direction of motion has to be slowed down. The
|
||
only way the acceleration of the pendulum could be slowed down only
|
||
in the longitudinal direction is for the size of the force field in
|
||
that direction to be decreased at the usual rate as a function of
|
||
absolute velocity.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote10anc" href="#sdendnote10sym"><sup>x</sup></a></sup></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Thus,
|
||
in order to explain the "local equivalence" of inertial
|
||
frames, that is, why absolute velocity cannot be detected by
|
||
measuring the velocity of light relative to the moving object and why
|
||
dynamic clocks do not disagree with light clocks, as if their
|
||
reference frames were at absolute rest in space, we need only assume
|
||
that the nature of matter is such that these four distortions occur
|
||
when material objects are in motion across absolute space. There are
|
||
two kinematic distortions and two dynamic distortions, all at the
|
||
same rate as a function of absolute velocity. The first two are the
|
||
distortions first described by Lorentz, and the latter two are
|
||
distortions that Einstein showed were entailed by the Lorentz
|
||
transformation equations when mass and force are also taken into
|
||
consideration. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
order to show that spatiomaterialism can explain the truth of
|
||
Einstein’s special theory of relativity, therefore, I will assume
|
||
that matter has this nature. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">I
|
||
have shown the necessity of these distortions here by following
|
||
Lorentz and arguing backwards from the Michelson-Morley experiment to
|
||
what is required for absolute velocity to be undetectable by
|
||
measurements of the velocity of light on any given inertial frame (or
|
||
from comparisons of dynamic clocks and light clocks), they are not as
|
||
ad hoc as that makes them seem. As I will argue in the final section,
|
||
they are the same distortions that would be caused by the nature of
|
||
ordinary material objects, if they were constituted by unit-like
|
||
electromagnetic interactions among its parts (among molecules, among
|
||
atoms within molecules, and between protons and electrons within
|
||
atoms). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
made it possible for Einstein to infer the Lorentz distortions from
|
||
his principle of relativity (and his assumptions that light has the
|
||
same velocity relative to every inertial frame) is that these are the
|
||
only distortions in material objects that would make absolute
|
||
velocity undetectable by measurements of the velocity of light and
|
||
comparisons between light clocks and dynamic clocks. But since they
|
||
are merely implicit in the Lorentz transformation equations he
|
||
derived, they appear in the paradoxical form of symmetrical
|
||
distortions between any pair of inertial frames, and that is the
|
||
other aspect of these phenomena that needs to be explained.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLStr_13" align="right" hspace="5" width="300" height="29" border="0">he
|
||
Symmetry of the Lorentz Distortions in Pairs of Inertial Frames. </b></font>The
|
||
four Lorentz distortions make it impossible to detect absolute rest
|
||
(or absolute motion) by any local experiment, that is, by ordinary
|
||
interactions among material objects on moving inertial frames, such
|
||
as interferometers and comparing light clocks with dynamic clocks.
|
||
But as Einstein's argument emphasized, the empirical equivalence of
|
||
inertial frames implies that they are equivalent globally as well as
|
||
locally. It is also impossible to detect absolute motion by
|
||
experiments involving the relationships between inertial frames with
|
||
high relative velocity, for example by comparing how fast their
|
||
clocks are ticking or how long their measuring rods are. And as the
|
||
symmetry of the two sets of Lorentz transformation equations implies,
|
||
what makes it impossible to detect absolute motion by such global
|
||
experiments is that the Lorentz distortions <i>always </i>appear to
|
||
be occurring in the <i>other </i>inertial frame as a function of the
|
||
velocity of the two references <i>relative </i>to one another. Thus,
|
||
in order to explain the empirical equivalence of inertial frames
|
||
ontologically, we must explain this symmetry in the members of any
|
||
pair of inertial frames as an appearance. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
first step in that explanation is to take note of how clocks on
|
||
inertial frames are mis-synchronized by using Einstein’s definition
|
||
of simultaneity at a distance, if the velocity of light is actually
|
||
due to an inherent motion in space itself. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
second step is to show how that mis-synchronization of clocks on
|
||
inertial frames moving rapidly across space combines with the Lorentz
|
||
distortions that they are actually suffering as a result of their
|
||
absolute motion to make it appear that Lorentz distortions are always
|
||
in the other inertial frame (and that the rate seems to be a function
|
||
of their relative velocity). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLStr_14" align="right" hspace="5" width="350" height="29" border="0">he
|
||
mis-synchronization of moving clocks. </font>The strategy of
|
||
spatiomaterialism is to explain the truth of the principle of
|
||
relativity on the assumption that all forms of matter, including
|
||
light and material objects, coincide with parts of space. The
|
||
assumption that both matter and space are substances enduring through
|
||
time makes it possible to explain presentist change, but it also
|
||
entails that space and time are absolute. Thus, it must reject
|
||
Einstein’s definition of simultaneity at a distance. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Einstein
|
||
stipulates that a local event is simultaneous with the moment of
|
||
reflection of a light signal from a distant mirror when that local
|
||
event occurs halfway through the total period required for the signal
|
||
to travel there and back. That is to assume that the velocity of
|
||
light is the same in both directions. This assumption is true on
|
||
inertial frames at absolute rest, but it is not true on objects
|
||
moving through absolute space. If light everywhere has a fixed
|
||
velocity relative to absolute space, the velocity of light relative
|
||
to a moving frame is slower traveling outward in the direction of
|
||
forward motion and faster in the opposite direction. Thus, clocks on
|
||
moving frames that are synchronized according to Einstein’s
|
||
definition of simultaneity at a distance will be actually
|
||
<i>mis</i>-synchronized. It is important to be clear about the nature
|
||
and amount of the error introduced, because mis-synchronization plays
|
||
a crucial role in causing the appearances that make absolute motion
|
||
undetectable by comparing inertial frames with one another, or the
|
||
symmetry of Lorentz distortions in pairs of inertial frames. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
most revealing way to show the mis-synchronization is to use a
|
||
diagram to represent the spatial and temporal relations among the
|
||
relevant events. This is to use the Newtonian diagram of space and
|
||
time, which is the spatiomaterialist counterpart to Minkowski’s
|
||
“graphical method” of using spacetime diagrams for “visualizing”
|
||
what is going on, and it is both simpler and easier to understand.
|
||
Since spatiomaterialism assumes that space is a substance and, thus,
|
||
absolute, the argument may begin with the coordinate frame at rest in
|
||
absolute space. Nothing precludes representing time as an axis
|
||
perpendicular to spatial dimensions, as long as we do not assume that
|
||
anything exists but what is located on lines parallel to our absolute
|
||
space-axis (horizontal lines in the diagram) for each moment. We can
|
||
<i>refer </i>to events in the past and future, even though they do
|
||
not exist, because they can be interpreted as references to space and
|
||
matter which have, as substances, an existential aspect that entails
|
||
that they did exist and will exist. We can also represent the motion
|
||
of the other inertial frame as a timeline whose slope depends on its
|
||
velocity (<i>t = x/v</i>), as Minkowski did. Furthermore, we can take
|
||
this timeline to be the time-axis of the moving inertial frame,
|
||
because that involves only a simple Galilean coordinate
|
||
transformation of the kind used in Newtonian physics. So far, this is
|
||
equivalent to Minkowski’s spacetime diagram. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Spatiomaterialism
|
||
cannot, however, go on to assume that the moving frame has a
|
||
space-axis that is inclined relative to our absolute space-axis, as
|
||
Minkowski's spacetime diagram does. We must assume that moving
|
||
measuring rods always lie parallel to the absolute space-axis, since
|
||
all parts of moving rods are particular substances and must exist at
|
||
the same time. But spatiomaterialism does hold, following Lorentz,
|
||
that moving measuring rods lying in the direction of motion are
|
||
contracted, and so we must recognize that the moving measuring rod is
|
||
shorter than it would be if it were at absolute rest. Now, to see the
|
||
significance of Einstein’s definition of simultaneity at a
|
||
distance, we need only consider the geometry of synchronizing clocks
|
||
in absolute space and time, that is, from the point of view of the
|
||
absolute frame depicted below. (See the diagram below comparing the
|
||
synchronization of both forward and afterward clocks on the absolute
|
||
and moving inertial reference frames.) </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="StrSynchronization" align="bottom" width="702" height="287" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
foregoing diagram depicts the general nature of the
|
||
mis-synchronization, but we will need to know just how much clocks
|
||
are mis-synchronized. Thus, consider the following diagram in which
|
||
the moving measuring rod is depicted as <i>L'.</i> </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img 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" name="StrMisSynch" align="bottom" width="406" height="449" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
length of the contracted moving measuring rod in absolute space is
|
||
<i>L'</i>. It is depicted at four locations that it occupies at
|
||
crucial moments during the process of synchronization. The thinner
|
||
inclined lines trace the path of each end of the rod where clocks are
|
||
located. The thin dotted-line represents the path of the light used
|
||
to synchronize the clocks at each end. Following Einstein’s
|
||
definition of simultaneity, (1) moving observers send a light signal
|
||
forward from the origin of their frame, (2) the light is reflected
|
||
from a mirror at the forward end of their measuring rod (and the
|
||
clock there is set at <i>0</i>), and (3) they record when it returns.
|
||
Einstein’s definition requires moving observers to set their clocks
|
||
on the assumption that the light was reflected halfway through the
|
||
total period required for its round trip. Since the light signal
|
||
reaches the mirror in the period <i>T</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>1</i></font></sub>
|
||
and returns to the observers in the period <i>T</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sub>,
|
||
they assume it was reflected at <i>(T</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>1</i></font></sub>
|
||
<i>+ T</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sub><i>)/2</i>
|
||
after the light was sent. Thus, they set their nearest clock so that
|
||
it would have read <i>0</i> at that moment. But since the measuring
|
||
rod is actually in absolute motion, the light does not reach the
|
||
mirror at the far end until it has passed both the length of the
|
||
measuring rod and whatever distance the rod travels during the first
|
||
leg (<i>T</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>1</i></font></sub>).
|
||
And on the return leg (<i>T</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sub>),
|
||
light does not have to travel the whole distance of the measuring
|
||
rod, since the other end is also moving toward the light. But since
|
||
moving observers assume that the reflection occurs halfway through
|
||
the period required for the round trip, they are, in effect, assuming
|
||
that the set of simultaneous events lies on the line that runs
|
||
through the halfway point on the timeline for the clock at the
|
||
observers’ end of the measuring rod and the point of reflection at
|
||
the mirror on the timeline for the clock at the forward end of the
|
||
measuring rod. That is what moving observers take to be their
|
||
space-line as seen by us from the frame at absolute rest.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The result
|
||
of mis-synchronizing clocks is precisely the same diagram for the
|
||
moving frame that Minkowski constructed from his hyperboloid curve,
|
||
representing the conclusion of Einstein’s special theory. (The same
|
||
results would also follow from the Lorentz transformation equations.)
|
||
However, we have derived the moving observers’ apparent space-axis
|
||
(or space-line), not from a mysterious equation, but in a perfectly
|
||
intelligible way. The moving space-line is rotated upward in the
|
||
diagram, <i>because </i>the moving clocks have been mis-synchronized.
|
||
And they have been mis-synchronized because the moving observers have
|
||
followed Einstein’s definition of simultaneity at a distance, which
|
||
assumes that the velocity of light is the same both ways in every
|
||
direction relative to any inertial frame.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
amount of the error introduced by mis-synchronization will be as
|
||
important as its cause in the next step of this argument, so bear
|
||
with me for one final point. The home clock reading <i>0 </i>is one
|
||
event in absolute space and time, and the forward clock reading <i>0
|
||
</i>is another event. The separation between them in the absolute
|
||
frame has a curious value, both in space and in time. The moving
|
||
measuring rod has a length of <i>L'</i>, but the distance in absolute
|
||
space between these two events turns out to be <i>L'/(1 - v</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>)</i>,
|
||
which means that the mis-synchronization makes it seem that the
|
||
moving measuring rod is <i>expanded </i>at the <i>square </i>of the
|
||
usual rate (see above diagram). The length of time between the two
|
||
events can be derived from the slope of the moving space-line in the
|
||
diagram for absolute space and time (that is, <i>v/c</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>)<i>.</i><sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote11anc" href="#sdendnote11sym"><sup>xi</sup></a></sup>
|
||
This is the slope of the tangent to Minkowski’s mysterious curve at
|
||
the point of intersection with the timeline for the observers’
|
||
nearest clock,<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote12anc" href="#sdendnote12sym"><sup>xii</sup></a></sup>
|
||
and it occurs in the second expression in the numerator for the
|
||
Lorentz transformation for time.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote13anc" href="#sdendnote13sym"><sup>xiii</sup></a></sup>
|
||
But in this context, the slope means that the difference in time
|
||
between the events is <i>v/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>[L'/(1
|
||
- v</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>)]</i>
|
||
(or the product of the slope of the moving space-line and the
|
||
distance between the points on it in absolute space). We will use
|
||
these values shortly.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLStr_15" align="right" hspace="5" width="350" height="29" border="0">he
|
||
Cause of the Apparent symmetry of Lorentz distortions. </font>Attempt
|
||
to detect absolute motion by measuring the rate of clocks and the
|
||
length of measuring rods on the other inertial frame are "global
|
||
experiments," and the reason that absolute motion cannot be
|
||
detected is that the Lorentz distortions appear to be symmetrical.
|
||
Since transformation equations must work both ways between any two
|
||
inertial reference frames, this symmetry is entailed by Einstein's
|
||
argument for the Lorentz transformation equations in his special
|
||
theory of relativity. And this symmetry is an essential part of the
|
||
empirical equivalence of inertial frames that Poincaré called the
|
||
"principle of relativity."</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
clocks and measuring rods were material objects in absolute space,
|
||
this symmetry would imply that clocks on two inertial frames passing
|
||
one another in space are both going slower than the other and that
|
||
their longitudinally-oriented measuring rods are both shorter than
|
||
one another. It is one of the reasons that Einsteinians must give up
|
||
the belief in absolute space and time. By the same token,
|
||
spatiomaterialism must explain this symmetry about pairs of inertial
|
||
frames as a <i>mere appearance</i> of space and matter as substances
|
||
enduring through time, just as the local equivalence was. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is the
|
||
part of the explanation of the empirical equivalence of inertial
|
||
frames that Lorentz left out of his Newtonian theory. But it is
|
||
readily supplied by the geometry of events in absolute space and
|
||
time. The apparent symmetry of the distortions is a result of the
|
||
actual Lorentz distortions suffered by the moving frame, together
|
||
with the mis-synchronization of moving clocks, as we can see by
|
||
considering how the measurements of the others’ clocks and rods are
|
||
made. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Length
|
||
contraction.</i> Consider first the apparent symmetry of length
|
||
contraction. The most direct way to measure the others’ standard of
|
||
length is to make simultaneous marks from both ends of one’s own
|
||
measuring rod onto the other inertial frame as it passes by and
|
||
compare that distance with the others’ measuring rod. This works
|
||
fine for absolute observers; they mark off a distance longer than
|
||
moving measuring rods lying in the direction of motion, indicating
|
||
that the moving measuring rods are contracted. But it also <i>seems
|
||
</i>to moving observers that absolute rods are contracted in the
|
||
direction of motion, and we can see why by considering what takes
|
||
place in making the measurement. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is because (1) clocks on the moving frame have been mis-synchronized
|
||
and (2) moving measuring rods are contracted. We have just seen that
|
||
moving observers mis-synchronize their clocks when they accept
|
||
Einstein’s definition of simultaneity: the distance in absolute
|
||
space between the events at which moving clocks at both end of a
|
||
moving measuring rod read the same time is equal to an <i>expansion
|
||
</i>of the actually contracted measuring rod at the <i>square </i>of
|
||
the usual rate, that is, <i>(1 - v</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>)</i>.
|
||
Thus, when moving observers make what they think are simultaneous
|
||
marks on the absolute measuring rod that is passing by, they mark off
|
||
a distance on the absolute frame that is longer than their actually
|
||
contracted measuring rod by the square of the usual rate, and since
|
||
that distance is longer than the absolute measuring rod by the usual
|
||
rate, the absolute measuring rod seems to be contracted at the usual
|
||
rate.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote14anc" href="#sdendnote14sym"><sup>xiv</sup></a></sup></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In other
|
||
words, as the absolute inertial frame comes toward them, the
|
||
mis-synchronization of their clocks leads moving observers to make a
|
||
mark from the afterward end of their own measuring rod first and
|
||
then, after the moving frame has traveled some distance, they make a
|
||
second mark from the forward end, so that distance marked off on the
|
||
absolute frame includes both the length of the contracted moving
|
||
measuring rod and all the distance that the absolute frame travels
|
||
between making the two marks. That virtual expansion of the moving
|
||
measuring rod makes it appear that the absolute measuring rod is
|
||
contracted.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote15anc" href="#sdendnote15sym"><sup>xv</sup></a></sup></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
error introduced by mis-synchronization is, in short, a virtual
|
||
distortion at the square of the usual rate, but in the opposite
|
||
direction, so that when the method of measuring combines it with the
|
||
actual shrinkage of the moving measuring rod, the effect is to make
|
||
absolute measuring rods seem distorted at the usual rate relative to
|
||
the moving rod. This same “geometrical mechanism” is at work in
|
||
the measurement of how fast the other’s clocks are ticking. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Time
|
||
dilation.</i> The most direct way for us to measure the speed of
|
||
clocks on the other inertial frame is for us to move <i>in our
|
||
inertial frame </i>along with one of the others’ clocks that is
|
||
passing by and to compare it with the series of clocks on our own
|
||
frame by which we will be passing. (Observers cannot take a clock
|
||
with them as they move through their own frame, because that would
|
||
make it a clock on the other frame. But nothing precludes observers
|
||
from keeping up with the other inertial frame and using clocks
|
||
already located at various points on their frame for the comparison.)
|
||
When observers on the frame at absolute rest keep up with the moving
|
||
clock and compare it with a series of their absolute clocks, they
|
||
observe the real slowing down of the others’ clock caused by its
|
||
absolute motion. The symmetry of the distortions means, however, that
|
||
when observers on a frame in absolute motion keep up with an absolute
|
||
clock and compare it with the series of their own moving clocks by
|
||
which they pass, the absolute clock <i>seems </i>to be slowed down. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">But
|
||
in the latter case, it is because (1) clocks on the moving frame have
|
||
been mis-synchronized, (2) the moving observers are moving backwards
|
||
on their own moving frame (<i>-v</i>) to keep up with the absolute
|
||
clock, and (3) clocks on the moving frame are slowed down. The amount
|
||
of deviation of a distant moving clock from absolute simultaneity
|
||
with a local moving clock is, as we saw, a function of the distance
|
||
in absolute space between the events at which two moving clocks have
|
||
the same readings, namely, <i>v/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>
|
||
times the absolute distance (the slope of the rotated space line). In
|
||
this measurement, that distance depends on how long the moving
|
||
observer has been traveling at <i>-v</i>, that is, the distance <i>-vt'</i>.
|
||
Thus, the deviation of the next clock from absolute simultaneity will
|
||
be <i>VT</i> times <i>v/c</i><sup><i>2</i></sup><i>,</i><sup> </sup>or
|
||
<i>-t'(v</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>).</i>
|
||
That amount of time plus the time that elapses during the moving
|
||
observers trip from one clock to the next (that is, <i>t'</i>) yields
|
||
a total apparent time period of <i>t' - t'(v</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>)</i>,
|
||
or <i>t'(1 - v</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup><i>)</i>,
|
||
<i>which is a virtual speeding up of moving clocks at the square of
|
||
the usual rate of distortions</i>. Thus, since (1), the
|
||
mis-synchronization of moving clocks, combines with (2), the moving
|
||
observers’ motion on the moving frame, to produce, in effect, a
|
||
virtual speeding up of moving clocks at the <i>square </i>of the
|
||
usual rate, the result, when combined with (3), the actual slowing
|
||
down of moving clocks at the usual rate, is that the absolute clock
|
||
being compared with them appears slowed down at the usual rate.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote16anc" href="#sdendnote16sym"><sup>xvi</sup></a>,
|
||
<a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote17anc" href="#sdendnote17sym"><sup>xvii</sup></a></sup></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
sum, given how the measurements are made, the mis-synchronization of
|
||
moving clocks introduces a virtual distortion through which the
|
||
moving observers’ own distortions <i>are projected onto the
|
||
absolute inertial frame</i>. This can be seen in our diagram of
|
||
events happening to particular substances in absolute space and time,
|
||
for as we found, the mis-synchronization shows up as a rotation of
|
||
the moving space-line that involves both a virtual speeding up of
|
||
moving clocks and a virtual lengthening of moving measuring rods.
|
||
Thus, to see how it gives rise to the apparent symmetry of the
|
||
distortions, consider how the measurement of the others’ clock is
|
||
represented below. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">When
|
||
absolute observers keep up with the moving clock and compare it with
|
||
a series of their own clocks, they follow the moving timeline. When
|
||
the moving clock says <i>t'=1</i>, they compare it with an absolute
|
||
clock (located on that absolute space-line) which reads
|
||
<i>t=1/</i><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image11" align="bottom" width="46" height="18" border="0">(represented
|
||
by the horizontal line labeled <b>I</b> in the diagram). And when
|
||
moving observers travel backwards on their own frame to keep up with
|
||
the absolute clock, they follow the absolute timeline (<i>x=0</i>).
|
||
When they pass by their own moving clock reading <i>t'=1</i>, they
|
||
compare it with the absolute clock which reads <i>t=</i><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image12" align="bottom" width="46" height="18" border="0">
|
||
(represented by the rotated moving space-line labeled II in the
|
||
diagram). The difference between these two measurements is obviously
|
||
due to the rotation of the moving space-line, which, as we have seen,
|
||
comes from mis-synchronizing moving clocks. Notice that the absolute
|
||
clock’s reading of <i>t=1</i> lies between these two comparisons.
|
||
Therein lies the power of mis-synchronization to cause the
|
||
appearance. Combining the slope induced in the moving space-line by
|
||
mis-synchronization (<i>v/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>)
|
||
with the movement of the moving observers in making the measurement
|
||
(<i>x' = VT</i>, that is, keeping up with the absolute clock) is
|
||
equivalent to a temporal distortion on the moving frame at the square
|
||
of the rate of the actual distortion (<i>1-v</i><sup><i>2</i></sup><i>/c</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>),
|
||
but in the opposite direction. So, it combines with the actual
|
||
slowing down of moving clocks to make the absolute clock seem slowed
|
||
down relative to moving clocks. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="StrAppDist" align="bottom" width="384" height="367" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
diagram also shows how the mis-synchronization is responsible for the
|
||
apparent symmetry of the contraction of measuring rods. But in this
|
||
case, it is the virtual expansion of the moving measuring rods
|
||
induced at the square of the usual rate by the mis-synchronization
|
||
that is relevant. When absolute observers make simultaneous marks on
|
||
the moving frame, they find that the moving measuring rod is
|
||
contracted at the usual rate (labeled III in the diagram). But when
|
||
moving observers make what they think are simultaneous marks on the
|
||
absolute frame, they actually mark off a distance that is expanded at
|
||
the square of the usual rate (labeled IV in the diagram). Once again,
|
||
the power of mis-synchronization can be seen in how the actual moving
|
||
measuring rod is contracted relative to the absolute measuring rod
|
||
and the virtual moving measuring rod is expanded relative to the
|
||
absolute rod, both at the usual rate. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
symmetry of Lorentz distortions is, therefore, a symmetry betwen real
|
||
distortions in reference frames in absolute motion and apparent
|
||
distortions in the reference frame at absolute rest, and it is a
|
||
thoroughgoing symmetry, which holds for all the basic ways of
|
||
measuring the other frame's clocks and measuring rods. Indeed, any of
|
||
the standard measurements can made from either member of the pair of
|
||
inertial frames, though when they are considered from the point of
|
||
view of the other inertial observer, they reveal that the other's
|
||
clocks are speeded up and the other's measuring rods are expanded in
|
||
the direction of motion. This can be seen in the </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>table
|
||
of measurements</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.
|
||
</span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
explanation of the apparent symmetry of the kinematic distortions
|
||
also accounts for the apparent symmetry of the dynamic distortions
|
||
(though the longitudinal distortion in the force field is not always
|
||
recognized as such by Einsteinians), for the apparent increase in
|
||
absolute masses is implied by the false belief that absolute clocks
|
||
are slowed down and the assumption that Newton’s laws apply the
|
||
same way on all inertial frames (Einstein’s principle of
|
||
relativity). Likewise, the apparent decrease in longitudinal forces
|
||
is implied by Einstein’s principle of relativity and the false
|
||
belief that absolute measuring rods are contracted in the direction
|
||
of motion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
apparent symmetry of the four distortions has been explained for the
|
||
special case in which one of the inertial frames is at absolute rest,
|
||
but it can be generalized to explain the apparent symmetry between
|
||
any two objects moving in absolute space. In the general case, the
|
||
rate of the apparent distortions is a function of their (apparent)
|
||
relative velocity, and what is detected on both sides is partly a
|
||
result of real distortions and partly illusions caused in the way
|
||
described above.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote18anc" href="#sdendnote18sym"><sup>xviii</sup></a></sup></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
observers on any pair of inertial frames agree about their relative
|
||
velocity, it is worth noting that, on the spatiomaterialist
|
||
explanation of the empirical equivalence, their measurements of
|
||
relative velocity do not coincide with their real velocity relative
|
||
to one another in absolute space: the apparent relative velocity is
|
||
never more than the velocity of light, but the real velocity of
|
||
inertial frames relative to one another can approach twice the
|
||
velocity of light, because light moves at that velocity in opposite
|
||
directions from any given point in absolute space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Conclusions.</b></i>
|
||
One part of the promise made in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Spatiomaterialism</font>
|
||
in order to use this ontology as a foundation for demonstrating
|
||
necessary truths has been kept. We have seen that spatiomaterialism
|
||
can explain the truth of Einstein’s special theory of relativity,
|
||
and means that nothing established empirically by Einstein’s theory
|
||
forces us to give up spatiomaterialism. Thus, if spatiomaterialism
|
||
can also explain the truth of Einstein’s general theory of
|
||
relativity (and quantum mechanics), physics will provide no grounds
|
||
for doubting that spatiomaterialism is the best ontological
|
||
explanation of the world. But there are a few implications of this
|
||
ontological explanation of special relativity that should be noted in
|
||
conclusion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">First,
|
||
though we have discovered the power of absolute velocity to cause
|
||
changes in material objects by following in the footsteps of Lorentz,
|
||
that does not mean that we must postulate an ether in addition to
|
||
absolute space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Lorentz and
|
||
Poincaré both expected to explain time dilation and length
|
||
contraction as the result of an interaction between material objects
|
||
and an ether at rest in absolute space (as if material objects were
|
||
made of nothing but electrons that interact with the electromagnetic
|
||
ether as they move through it). Though material objects must also
|
||
have something to interact with on our explanation of the Lorentz
|
||
distortions, we can take it to be space itself. We have postulated
|
||
space as a substance that contains matter, and having already used
|
||
that relationship to explain the truth of the laws of classical
|
||
physics, we now use it to explain the Lorentz distortions. Indeed, I
|
||
have suggested reasons for expecting Lorentz distortions to occur
|
||
apart from what is necessary to make absolute motion undetectable. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though
|
||
there is no luminiferous ether, there is still a medium of light
|
||
propagation, and it still makes sense to hold that there is an
|
||
inertial frame in which light has the same one-way velocities in
|
||
every pair of opposite directions. That will be important in our
|
||
explanation of the truth of Einstein's general theory of relativity,
|
||
because we will not always assume that the light medium is at
|
||
absolute rest in space. The aspect of space by which it serves as the
|
||
medium of light propagation is more complex than it appears now,
|
||
because we shall have to assume that the velocity of light varies
|
||
with location in space in a way that can be seen as depending on the
|
||
velocity of the light medium relative to space. It is as if the ether
|
||
were being accelerated in space, but even though that may suggest
|
||
that the light medium is an ether after all, we will still not
|
||
postulate an ethereal substance coinciding with space to explain this
|
||
phenomenon. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Second,
|
||
the difference between the actual Lorentz distortions in material
|
||
objects with absolute velocity and the apparent symmetry of Lorentz
|
||
distortions in pairs of inertial frames revealed by this ontological
|
||
explanation shows that the mathematical representation of special
|
||
relativity is hiding an aspect of reality. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
mathematical way of saying that inertial frames are all equivalent is
|
||
to say that the laws of physics are covariant, or Lorentz covariant.
|
||
That means that laws of physics that apply in one frame take the same
|
||
form in any other inertial frame, that is, when they are subjected to
|
||
the Lorentz transformation. (This equivalence is what is represented
|
||
by Minkowski’s equation for the absolute separation between any two
|
||
events and is the foundation for the equations of four-vector
|
||
physics, which do not mention any specific inertial frame.)
|
||
Einstein’s original article showed that covariance holds in the
|
||
case of electromagnetism, and imposing covariance as a requirement on
|
||
other physical theories has generated predictions that turn out to be
|
||
true. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Despite the
|
||
obvious simplicity, comprehensiveness, elegance, and fruitfulness of
|
||
this mathematical representation of special relativity, however, it
|
||
is a mistake to take covariance to be the deepest and most complete
|
||
truth about the real nature of the world. Our ontological explanation
|
||
of the truth of special relativity reveals that covariance actually
|
||
represents two different phenomena, with two different ontological
|
||
causes. There is the local equivalence of inertial frames, which is
|
||
caused by the actual Lorentz distortions, and there is the global
|
||
equivalence, which is caused by the mis-synchronization of clocks and
|
||
how that makes one’s own Lorentz distortions appear to be in the
|
||
other inertial frame. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Third,
|
||
this ontological interpretation of the mathematical representations
|
||
used in special relativity confirms that the method of physics is
|
||
implicitly skeptical about ontological causes that are not entailed
|
||
by realism about its efficient cause explanations. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">When
|
||
physics infers to the best efficient-cause explanation, it looks for
|
||
laws of nature that represent the quantitative aspects of the
|
||
regularities involved, because such mathematical representations can
|
||
often be used to predict surprising, precise measurements that
|
||
confirm their truth. The empirical method of science is so dependent
|
||
on mathematical representations that, once experiments have confirmed
|
||
their predictions, physicists are realists about their
|
||
efficient-cause explanations. They let scientific realism determine
|
||
their ontology. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Accordingly,
|
||
the belief in spacetime is simply realism about special relativity.
|
||
That is, substantivalism about spacetime is the ontology that results
|
||
from taking the simplest mathematical theory that can predict all the
|
||
relevant phenomena to correspond to what exists. Since the special
|
||
relativity holds that all inertial frames are empirically equivalent,
|
||
scientific realism takes the empirical equivalence among inertial
|
||
frames to be an ontological equivalence. That is to replace absolute
|
||
space and time with spacetime. But it is also the leave out an aspect
|
||
of reality, for it is to ignore the observable fact that only the
|
||
present exists. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Finally,
|
||
the principle of relativity itself turns out to be merely a practical
|
||
principle, without ontological significance. Though as a practical
|
||
matter, the assignment of coordinates to events can be made only
|
||
relative to an inertial frame whose absolute motion cannot be known,
|
||
that does not mean that they do not have actual locations in absolute
|
||
space as time passes. There is an absolute truth about the dates and
|
||
places of events. Even though we can never know what they are, we can
|
||
know that there is a fact of the matter about when and where they
|
||
occur. That is what is implied by this ontological reduction of
|
||
special relativity. I have called it an explanation of empirical
|
||
equivalence, because by explaining the <i>apparent </i>truth of the
|
||
principle of relativity, it denies that this relativity is a basic
|
||
principle of physics.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote19anc" href="#sdendnote19sym"><sup>xix</sup></a></sup></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>T<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAJcAAAAPCAMAAADedK1lAAAAOVBMVEUAAAANDAkcGBMqJR04MSZGPjBjV0NxY01/cFeOfGGciWqqlXS4on7HrojVu5Hjx5v8A/sAAAD///8Dae6uAAAAEXRSTlP/////////////////////ACWtmWIAAAGHSURBVHic7ZUJboQwDEUh8ZKQxfe/bb8DiGnLdLaqqqpaM8HJx/ELNmKa/u1Bs99nO1cZZlIPqbUbsVXeTXv9QnyWS5VI1agcUs6nEYU+eyckH8RnuZwMAyVmPCYlaXiElmsaoIUZ17y4qEFLV9LuqVcHo2Rr2QO5NsGwc1UmtYwzQ/OqrAu2EDbsQtLv5BJLYqII9AWK6lwtNPw2McfScIOKp14d8dRjKtaWVq2GjcvDkpVunG0aOeaKhYV7C52h1Du5im84q+pkR1ldWmdlpPcU+MNbnblvwjyOn4WmjSuN2jaloBtXEKdk1VCEl6stfMo1jXfgfq7JNmHsJOiBnWts2sLizsrVE8+dEhJ0HGAuZ1DXuCihMS64PAfcjSvaQbg6sXjdfYoWq7RY27lKwIJHoNRT9xGFi0UZry/q7QsPcHWOkS+4TGPUXTSiXIlotPbq1MBM+3SpgWTnQiSxCQY0Iu5Sw9aoLVZig0a3+/4F695Tr27y3r6FK4frB3/SfuIz97fsDbX3T8fXrVdJAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCLStr_02" align="right" hspace="5" width="300" height="29" border="0">he
|
||
Ontological Causes of the Lorentz Distortions.</b></font> Lorentz
|
||
explained the negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiment by
|
||
distortions in material objects caused by their motion through
|
||
absolute space, and his own research focused on explaining those
|
||
distortions as an interaction between material objects and the
|
||
luminiferous ether according to his electron theory of matter, a
|
||
theory that is now known to be false. He could have simply assumed
|
||
the Lorentz distortions as basic laws of physics, as we have thus
|
||
far, but we will travel once again in Lorentz's footsteps by
|
||
considering a deeper explanation of his distortions, an ontological
|
||
theory that makes use of our assumption that there is an inherent
|
||
motion in space and which uses certain assumptions about the nature
|
||
of material objects that will not be defended until we explain the
|
||
truth of quantum mechanics ontologically. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">By
|
||
contrast to Einstein's elegant mathematical derivation of the Lorentz
|
||
transformation equations from the assumption that inertial frames are
|
||
all empirically equivalent, Lorentz's Newtonian theory seemed merely
|
||
to be tinkering with classical physics in an ad hoc manner. First, he
|
||
recognized the length contraction, and then a few years later, a time
|
||
dilation. And to extend his argument to explain why dynamic phenomena
|
||
do not reveal absolute rest or motion, two more distortions would
|
||
need to be recognized (an increase in mass and a flattening of force
|
||
fields). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
Lorentz distortions are, however, neither arbitrary nor contrived. In
|
||
fact, there is a certain necessity about them, as I will try to
|
||
demonstrate by showing how they follow from what is known about the
|
||
nature of material objects (or rather from the spatiomaterialist
|
||
ontological explanation of what is known about them) together with
|
||
our assumption that space is the medium of light transmission (with
|
||
the velocity of light manifesting an inherent motion in space). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is now known that material objects are constituted by electromagnetic
|
||
interactions among its constituent parts, and the assumption that is
|
||
required in order to explain the truth of quantum mechanics
|
||
ontologically is that those electromagnetic interactions have a
|
||
unit-like nature (or a “quantum” nature, as it is called). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Atoms, for
|
||
example, are made of a nucleus of protons and neutrons which
|
||
interacts by electric and magnetic forces with a number of electrons
|
||
that is normally equal to the number of protons. It is a stable
|
||
configuration, because the nature of those electromagnetic
|
||
interactions between the nucleus and the electrons is such that the
|
||
potential energy cannot be lower (that is, no more of their rest
|
||
masses can be converted to kinetic energy or other forms of matter).
|
||
That is contrary to what is expected according to the laws of
|
||
classical physics. They imply that electrons would quickly spiral
|
||
into the nucleus, radiating all their energy away as electromagnetic
|
||
waves. But that does not happen, and the attempt to explain why not
|
||
led to the discovery of quantum mechanics. The structure of the atom
|
||
was one of the first discoveries. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">On the
|
||
ontological explanation of quantum mechanics defended in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Quantum
|
||
Mechanics, </font>there is a unit-like, or quantum, nature to
|
||
electromagnetic interactions. Interactions cannot take place unless
|
||
they involve a certain minimum quantity of action. Thus, the energy
|
||
level of electrons bound to a nucleus in an atom can change only in a
|
||
step-like way, each involving a whole quantum of action in which the
|
||
energy is carried away by a photon, the units of which
|
||
electromagnetic waves are composed , according to quantum mechanics.
|
||
And there is a minimum energy level for electrons in atoms, because
|
||
in that state, as we shall assume, such electrons are bound to the
|
||
nucleus by the smallest electromagnetic interaction possible. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
details about the unit-like nature of these quantum electromagnetic
|
||
interactions will be discussed later. (See </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaLdQmLorentzDist.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Change:
|
||
Quantum mechanics</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.)
|
||
What is relevant here is that material objects generally are
|
||
constituted by such unit-like electromagnetic interactions among
|
||
simpler material objects with electric charges. Not only atoms, but
|
||
also molecules, crystals, and other complex structures composed of
|
||
atoms depend on electromagnetic bonds among electrically charged
|
||
parts that exhibit this quantum nature. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Material
|
||
objects are composed of many such quantum electromagnetic
|
||
interactions. They give the material object its structure as a whole,
|
||
because all these quantum events not only coincide with space in a
|
||
consistent geometrical pattern, but also fit together in time. Any
|
||
given material object can interact with more than one other material
|
||
object at a time, and since the quantum interactions are
|
||
synchronized, the effects of different interactions of the object can
|
||
be repeated regularly in the same way, cycle after cycle,
|
||
constituting a structure that does not change over time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">We
|
||
are assuming that space is the medium of light transmission, and
|
||
since light is constituted electric and magnetic forces coupled
|
||
according to Maxwell's laws, space must also mediate the exertion of
|
||
such forces. Our working hypothesis is that space has an inherent
|
||
motion by which it mediates light transmission, and thus, if electric
|
||
and magnetic forces are exerted across space as time passed by way of
|
||
an inherent motion in space, the electromagnetic interactions
|
||
involved in the constitution of material objects will inevitably be
|
||
affected by the object's motion through space as a whole. And the way
|
||
that they are affected, given this ontological explanation of their
|
||
quantum nature, explains the Lorentz distortions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Whatever is
|
||
going on in the quantum interactions constituting material objects,
|
||
it involves the exertion of electric and magnetic forces, and any
|
||
such <i>inter</i>-action requires photons traveling both ways between
|
||
them. But since we have assumed that the motion of photons depends on
|
||
the inherent motion in space, the material object as a whole will
|
||
inevitably be affected by its motion across space, because it will
|
||
change the effective velocity at which those forces are exerted.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">I will
|
||
assume that in each unit-like electromagnetic interaction, say,
|
||
between the nucleus of an atom and one of its electrons, a photon
|
||
travels, first, one way between the objects and, then, back the other
|
||
way between them before a single quantum interaction is completed.
|
||
(Indeed, the interaction may involve symmetrical two-way trips of
|
||
photons, one starting from both of the objects involved in the
|
||
interaction.) Such two-way trips are necessary, because quantum
|
||
interactions occur only as a whole, if they occur at all. Never is
|
||
one of the objects changed while the other is not. Since the objects
|
||
are separated from one another in space, the only way that one of the
|
||
objects can change when, and only when, the other object also changes
|
||
is by something traveling both ways across space between them in the
|
||
period of time that it take to complete the unit-like action. Nothing
|
||
less is ontologically possible, if there are such unit-like
|
||
electromagnetic interactions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
material object’s motion across space will not make much difference
|
||
as long as its velocity is small compared to the velocity of light.
|
||
In fact, the velocity of light (that is, the inherent motion in
|
||
space) is so enormous that the effect on most ordinary material
|
||
objects is undetectable. Nevertheless, since material objects subject
|
||
to appropriate forces will continue to accelerate, they can acquire
|
||
velocities approaching that of light, and the objects will be
|
||
affected by the change in the one-way velocities of light. There are
|
||
four effects, and I will describe them qualitatively here, since an
|
||
ontological explanation is meant to identify the aspects of the
|
||
substances to which physical laws correspond. Their quantitative
|
||
aspects would clearly be the same as the Lorentz distortions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Slowing
|
||
down of quantum interactions. </font>The first and most obvious
|
||
effect of high absolute velocity in space is a slowing down of all
|
||
the quantum electromagnetic interactions constituting the material
|
||
object, so that all processes take place more slowly. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Slowing
|
||
down is inevitable, because in each unit-like interaction, the
|
||
photons being exchanged must travel not only the distance between the
|
||
parts with electric changes, but also all the distance covered by the
|
||
material object as a whole in the time it take to complete the
|
||
unit-like interaction. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">Suppose,
|
||
for example, that one of the electromagnetic interactions
|
||
constituting an atom is oriented perpendicularly to the direction of
|
||
the atom's motion through space. In order to complete the
|
||
interaction, a photon must travel from the nucleus to the electron
|
||
and then back again in the period of a single unit of interaction.
|
||
But all the time that the photon is traveling, the atom as a whole is
|
||
also moving across space, and thus, in keeping up with the atom, the
|
||
photon will have to travel farther that in it would at rest. Since
|
||
its velocity is due to the inherent motion in space, the photon
|
||
cannot speed up, and so it will take longer to complete the two-way
|
||
trip between the nucleus and electron. Unit-like electromagnetic
|
||
interactions will take longer to complete on a moving atom than they
|
||
would at rest. And since this is true of all the unit-like
|
||
electromagnetic interactions constituting material objects, all
|
||
physical processes involved will be slowed down at the same rate as a
|
||
function of their absolute motion. (The quantitative description of
|
||
this effect of absolute velocity is given in the discussion of the
|
||
</span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/OtkCaLbStrC.htm" target="Objects"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Lorentz
|
||
Distortions</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">.)</span></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Longitudinal
|
||
shrinking of quantum interactions. </font>A less obvious, but no less
|
||
necessary, effect of high velocity motion across space is a shrinking
|
||
of the size of quantum electromagnetic interactions in the direction
|
||
of absolute motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
two-way trip of an electromagnetic interaction in the direction of
|
||
motion will be slowed down just as much as such a unit like
|
||
interaction in the direction transverse to motion described above,
|
||
because once again, the photon will have to cover all the extra
|
||
distance across space that the material object as a whole covers
|
||
during the period required to go both ways. Thus, the longitudinal
|
||
quantum interactions will be synchronized with the transverse quantum
|
||
interactions. But a further distortion of the quantum interaction is
|
||
required in the direction of motion, because in order to remain
|
||
synchronized with the transverse quantum interaction, the photon must
|
||
travel a shorter distance. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
additional effect comes from the asymmetry of the two-way trip of the
|
||
photon in the longitudinal quantum interaction constituting a
|
||
material object, such as an atom. Unlike the transverse quantum
|
||
event, the motion of the material object as a whole makes the
|
||
effective velocity of light different in each direction. When the
|
||
photon is traveling from the nucleus to the electron in the same
|
||
direction across space as the atom itself, it has a lower velocity
|
||
relative to the atom than it would at rest, because the other object
|
||
is moving away from it all the time it travels. And then, on the
|
||
return leg of its two-way trip, the photon is traveling in the
|
||
opposite direction, and that makes its velocity relative to the atom
|
||
higher, because its destination is moving toward it. The problem is
|
||
that, even though the distance between the nucleus and the electron
|
||
is the same both ways, the velocity of the photon is different, and
|
||
thus, it cannot complete the two way trip in time to be synchronized
|
||
with transverse quantum events -- unless the distance is shortened.
|
||
The effect on the total time of travel depends on how long the photon
|
||
spends traveling at each velocity, and since it spends more time
|
||
traveling slower than the velocity of light relative to the atom on
|
||
the forward leg than it does traveling the same distance faster than
|
||
the velocity of light on the return leg, its completion of the two
|
||
way trip would be delayed -- unless the distance between the electron
|
||
and the nucleus were less than it would be at absolute rest. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This effect
|
||
can also be seen from the point of view of absolute space. The photon
|
||
traveling in the direction of motion has farther to go to reach its
|
||
destination than in the opposite direction, because in the forward
|
||
direction, its destination is moving away from it and in the backward
|
||
direction its destination is moving toward it. Though the effects of
|
||
the two legs are in opposite directions, they do not cancel out,
|
||
because the photon spends more time chasing destinations that are
|
||
retreating than it does traveling toward destinations that are
|
||
approaching it. It cannot make up on the return leg all the time it
|
||
loses on the forward leg. (The quantitative description of this
|
||
effect of absolute velocity is given in the <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Lorentz
|
||
Distortions</font>.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
first two distortions in material objects with a high velocity are
|
||
what must happen, if material objects are constituted by
|
||
synchronized, unit-like electromagnetic interactions and the
|
||
propagation of electric and magnetic forces is due to an inherent
|
||
motion in space. But two further changes in material objects are
|
||
required in order for them to interact in the ways described by the
|
||
basic laws of physics, one affecting the masses of the objects
|
||
involved and the other affecting the forces they exert. They too can
|
||
be explained ontologically, given the the various forms of matter
|
||
that we have already postulated in order to explain the laws of
|
||
classical physics.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Increase
|
||
in mass. </font>Quantum electromagnetic interactions involve the
|
||
exertion of forces, as if the objects involved were accelerating one
|
||
another in some way, and in order for forces to have the same effects
|
||
on material objects with high velocity as they do on material objects
|
||
at absolute rest, a further change is necessary, because the same
|
||
interaction takes longer to be completed when the material object is
|
||
moving across space at a high velocity. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Consider
|
||
a quantum interaction in the transverse direction constituting a
|
||
material object, such as an atom. The transverse distance between the
|
||
two objects is not changed, but the time required for the interaction
|
||
to take place is longer. The only way that it is possible for an
|
||
unchanged force to accelerate an object more slowly is when the mass
|
||
of the object is greater. Newton’s second law holds that the force
|
||
is equal to the mass times the acceleration, and since the
|
||
acceleration is lower, the mass must be greater by at the same rate. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Thus,
|
||
we assume that the increase in the period of the unit-like
|
||
electromagnetic interactions is accompanied by a similar increase in
|
||
the masses of the objects from what their masses are at rest. And
|
||
since all the quantum interactions among all the parts of the
|
||
material object in motion are slowed down, the (rest) masses of all
|
||
the parts increase accordingly, and thus, the (rest) mass of the
|
||
material object as a whole increases at the same rate. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
increase in the mass of the moving material object can be explained,
|
||
on our ontological explanation of the basic laws of classical
|
||
physics, as simply the kinetic energy it acquires by its motion.
|
||
Kinetic energy is one of the forms of matter, and since the quantity
|
||
of matter determines its mass, the kinetic matter required to have a
|
||
high velocity in absolute space can explain the increase in its mass.
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
quantitative aspects of this explanation depends on the theory of
|
||
kinetic matter in </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaLdQmRelMass.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Change:
|
||
Quantum mechanics</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.
|
||
But we can already see, in principle, how its mass could increase to
|
||
infinity as the material object approaches the velocity of light. In
|
||
order to increase the velocity of the material object, each bit of
|
||
kinetic matter as well as each bit of rest mass must be accelerated,
|
||
that is, given additional kinetic matter, and thus, the amount of
|
||
kinetic matter required to increase it at higher velocities depends
|
||
on how much kinetic matter it already has. The limit is the velocity
|
||
of light because of how the units of kinetic matter involve the
|
||
velocity of light. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Longitudinal
|
||
decrease in electric field. </font>Though all quantum interactions
|
||
suffer a time dilation and increase in mass, quantum interactions in
|
||
the direction of motion suffer an additional distortion, which
|
||
shrinks the lengths of the material objects they constitute. What
|
||
remains to be noticed here is that such a shrinkage in the length of
|
||
the moving material object also involves a change in the shape of the
|
||
electric force fields exerted by charged objects. Instead of being
|
||
spherical, they are flattened out in the direction of motion.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
electric force field is, we are assuming, a form of electromagnetic
|
||
matter that is spread out around the center of mass of the object
|
||
with a electric charge. It is what is responsible for the electric
|
||
force that the nucleus, say, exerts on its electrons. But as we have
|
||
seen, the forces exerted by way of such an electric field can act
|
||
only over a shorter distance, and that requires us to hold that the
|
||
electric field itself is shorter in the direction of motion than it
|
||
is in the transverse direction. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
the electric field is a form of matter according to this ontological
|
||
explanation, it is not just matter being dragged along by the center
|
||
of mass with the charge. The electric field is shortened both in
|
||
front of the electric charge and behind by the same amount (with the
|
||
transverse distance unchanged). Since that shortening is the result
|
||
of having to complete a two-way trip with different one-way
|
||
velocities of light, that suggests that the matter making up the
|
||
electric field itself must be explained as a cyclic, unit-like change
|
||
when we take up the ontological explanation of the basic particles
|
||
(the simplest bits of matter with rest mass). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Let
|
||
us assume, therefore, that the essential nature of matter making up a
|
||
spatiomaterial world like ours is such that material objects in
|
||
motion suffer these four kinds of changes, or “distortions” from
|
||
what they are like at absolute rest, as a result of motion through a
|
||
substantival space in which an inherent motion is responsible for the
|
||
exertion of electric and magnetic forces. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Let
|
||
me emphasize that the foregoing explanation of the four distortions
|
||
is intended only to show how the four Lorentz distortions in moving
|
||
material objects are not mere ad hoc contrivances for patching up a
|
||
hole in Newtonian physics, but fit comfortably into this ontological
|
||
explanation of the truth of physics, including its explanation of
|
||
quantum mechanics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Such
|
||
an explanation of the four distortions is not required, however, to
|
||
meet the challenge of showing that it is possible for
|
||
spatiomaterialism to explain the truth of Einstein’s special theory
|
||
of relativity. It would be enough simply to assume the Lorentz
|
||
distortions as part of the basic nature of matter, as if they were
|
||
basic laws of physics. Hence, doubts about the ontological
|
||
assumptions I have made about the nature of material objects to
|
||
explain the Lorentz distortions should not cast doubt on the capacity
|
||
of spatiomaterialism, in general, to explain the truth of Einstein’s
|
||
special theory of relativity.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>E<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAFQAAAAdCAMAAAAD4rtXAAAAOVBMVEUAAAANDAkcGBMqJR04MSZGPjBjV0NxY01/cFeOfGGciWqqlXS4on7HrojVu5Hjx5v8A/sAAAD///8Dae6uAAAAEXRSTlP/////////////////////ACWtmWIAAAHmSURBVHic1ZaLcishCIaNIqgovP/bHtDdzSZt2p7OtjM1Y8YL+UTkZxLCH2p6cftZ6ChU5WNbOEbYvwStqXGJnziw0Lz659AR3UvrDTLrqARFtWeoqjRoIEDboCMiKZSch20BDhUCEmWutdlR3O5QwnVGy2J8jl3iGGmIuRQyjaY2X1BJhRVQC6rRG/i3/ZoiVpsonKFkcwDNmSgy+y4XIHNiohjhxo/XN5sbEYW5GiZAzZF4un7NK2hQmFkWlNDG07+WunOeocH2+QwtiOUElVjXnsFlLCh7nLuu4Eg6oG2Hzrhv4wmVOJ/meH1/i2SBxQRpg1pGQGqOkgT5gLYEG0hySlm7ha0vqCI+pNQ1zV7zcuh6mZ+W6S9AG+DjApzGsit/jP+Bmqqeistu44nR9wNrfb8KvIFW1zNFcuNRmVTQtR086XKfO6OKJxCJacMqwSH5l9CaTfmWoew345sJ2xIUXayja1875m2cEyKvBIfkX0KXCBnud41ECH79ihDmkvVq5aR6xrv9LvmvQzmZwF2siF4HNqhE++zQXfIvoWZn5ieo3PqqAHbDYdC0ltHTw6HtLvmXUMFkej9BtVsF8Jj2CBi8QNYZlTAm1CvBLvmX0G+1+JSvV0B3yV8KfdO+/w/k99s/TEtkgIn0SusAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="TtsOtkCLGtr_01" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="60" border="0">instein’s
|
||
general theory of relativity. </b></font>By showing that
|
||
spatiomaterialism can explain the truth of Einstein’s special
|
||
theory of relativity (STR), I have answered the first part of the
|
||
Einsteinian reservation about using spatiomaterialism as the
|
||
foundation for demonstrating ontologically necessary truths. In this
|
||
section, I will answer the second part. Einstein’s general theory
|
||
of relativity (GTR) also makes it appear that this is not a
|
||
spatiomaterial world, and I will show how its truth can also be
|
||
explained by spatiomaterialism.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
way Einstein’s general theory of relativity explains gravitation
|
||
does not, at first, seem compatible with spatiomaterialism. The
|
||
foundation of the general theory is spacetime, for gravitation is
|
||
explained as a “curvature” in spacetime, and since
|
||
substantivalism about spacetime is incompatible with substantivalism
|
||
about space, it seems out of the question that what the general
|
||
theory refers to as “curved spacetime” could turn out to be an
|
||
aspect of space and matter as substances enduring through time. (For
|
||
a very accessible account of Einstein's general theory of relativity,
|
||
see Clifford M. </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Will86"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Will</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">'s
|
||
</span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>Was
|
||
Einstein Right?)</i></span></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is, however, possible for spatiomaterialism to explain why Einstein’s
|
||
general theory of relativity is true. The key is what spacetime turns
|
||
out to be in the ontological explanation of the truth of the special
|
||
theory of relativity, for that makes it possible to explain curved
|
||
spacetime as well. Curved spacetime is also an aspect of space and
|
||
matter, even though as substances that endure through time, space and
|
||
matter exist only at the present moment. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Though
|
||
I go on in the next section to suggest an ontological explanation of
|
||
quantum mechanics and, in the following section, take up some basic
|
||
issues in cosmology, this explanation of the Einstein’s general
|
||
theory of relativity pays off the second mortgage that we took out in
|
||
order to use spatiomaterialism as the foundation for our
|
||
philosophical argument. (See </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtgNtMort.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Necessary
|
||
Truths</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US">.)</span></font></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Quantum
|
||
mechanics is not so crucial to this project, because there is
|
||
continuing disagreement about its ontological implications and some
|
||
of the possibilities are compatible with spatiomaterialism. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We have
|
||
already seen how the existence of consciousness can be explained in a
|
||
spatiomaterial world (though the unity of consciousness will not be
|
||
explained until I take up the mammalian brain in the sixth stage of
|
||
evolution), and I have yet to take up the nature of goodness and
|
||
holiness. But one of those four mortgages will be repaid when we see
|
||
that Einsteinian physics provides not reason for denying that this is
|
||
a spatiomaterial world. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
fact, spatiomaterialism might welcome the challenge of explaining
|
||
Einstein’s general theory of relativity, because that means it does
|
||
not have to defend Newton’s theory of gravitation. Newton’s
|
||
theory is <i>prima facie </i>less hospitable to spatiomaterialism
|
||
than general relativity. If a force did act immediately at a
|
||
distance, it would contradict the principle of local action, implying
|
||
that spatiomaterialism is false. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Newton’s
|
||
theory describes an attractive force by which every material object
|
||
acts immediately on every other material object, including those at a
|
||
distance. Newton introduced it, in effect, as the best
|
||
efficient-cause explanation of Kepler’s laws of planetary orbits,
|
||
and it was confirmed by the deduction of many surprising,
|
||
quantitatively precise predictions of measurements, becoming the
|
||
model for the empirical method in physics. Despite its predictive
|
||
success, Newton’s law of gravitation had nothing to say about how
|
||
such forces are exerted on objects at a distance, except that they
|
||
act instantaneously at a distance. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Action at a
|
||
distance was puzzling to classical physicists, since it did not fit
|
||
well with their intuitive understanding of nature as composed of
|
||
space and matter in time. Even Newton was uncomfortable with the
|
||
notion, and he refused to make any hypotheses about how gravitation
|
||
worked in his <i>Principia</i>.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote20anc" href="#sdendnote20sym"><sup>xx</sup></a></sup>
|
||
But action at a distance could not be rejected for being incompatible
|
||
with spatiomaterialism, for that would require using space as an
|
||
ontological cause, and Newtonian physics did not recognize the
|
||
validity of ontological arguments. Still, when Einstein proposed an
|
||
explanation of gravitation that implied that gravitational forces
|
||
propagate at a finite velocity, even physicists were relieved at not
|
||
having to believe in action at a distance. And it did remove what
|
||
would otherwise be an insuperable objection to spatiomaterialism. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Einstein’s
|
||
general theory of relativity was, however, another highly
|
||
mathematical hypothesis, which predicted many quantitatively precise
|
||
measurements, and since it implies that gravitational acceleration is
|
||
caused by a curvature of spacetime, a realist interpretation of
|
||
Einstein’s theory seems to imply that spacetime is a substance. But
|
||
if the real nature of what exists in addition to mass and energy is
|
||
spacetime, that is, a four-dimensional entity in which time is one of
|
||
the dimensions along with space, then existence is not in time and
|
||
“real change” is not ontologically possible. Thus, general
|
||
relativity solved one ontological problem, but only by introducing
|
||
another. The challenge is, therefore, to explain how curved spacetime
|
||
can be understood as an aspect of a world constituted by space and
|
||
matter as substances that exist only at the present moment. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLGtr_02" align="right" hspace="5" width="225" height="36" border="0">urved
|
||
spacetime. </b></font>Having discovered STR by assuming the local
|
||
equivalence of all inertial frames, Einstein sought to use the same
|
||
approach in explaining acceleration due to gravity, that is, by
|
||
including reference frames that were being accelerated by
|
||
gravitation. Thus, the main assumption of his general theory of
|
||
relativity is the equivalence of inertial frames to reference frames
|
||
falling freely in gravitational fields. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
Einstein himself called the “principle of equivalence” assumes
|
||
that nothing can be detected within any reference frame (that is,
|
||
locally) that would distinguish a reference frame in inertial motion
|
||
from one in free fall. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Or, to put
|
||
Einstein’s equivalence principle the opposite way, a reference
|
||
frame at rest in a gravitational field is indistinguishable from one
|
||
being accelerated by a force; the push that we ordinarily call the
|
||
“force” of gravity is actually the force of the earth
|
||
accelerating us upward from what is equivalent to inertial motion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
further equivalence can be only local, however, because free-falling
|
||
frames are obviously different in how they are related to the rest of
|
||
the world, or globally. Though inertial frames simply continue in
|
||
motion indefinitely, free-falling reference frames eventually collide
|
||
with the center of gravity, because gravitational fields are imposed
|
||
by matter concentrated at certain locations. Thus, what makes the
|
||
general theory of relativity general is that it includes both
|
||
inertial and free-falling reference frames, and Einstein’s highly
|
||
mathematical description of how they fit together as parts of a
|
||
single world is a theory of acceleration due to gravity. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Einstein’s
|
||
strategy in GTR paralleled that of his special theory. In STR,
|
||
Einstein used his principle of relativity (implying the equivalence
|
||
of all inertial frames) to derive a mathematical description of how
|
||
they must be related globally (the Lorentz transformation equations).
|
||
In his general theory, Einstein started with the assumption that
|
||
reference frames in free fall are locally equivalent to inertial
|
||
frames, and using the four-dimensional, spacetime mathematics from
|
||
special relativity, he derived equations describing how all reference
|
||
frames, inertial and free-falling frames, are related to one another.
|
||
In both theories, the equivalence of reference frames means that the
|
||
laws of physics hold the same way on each of them. That means that
|
||
there is a mathematical transformation of explanations of events
|
||
given on any one reference frame into explanations given on the other
|
||
in which the laws of physics have the same form. In special
|
||
relativity, only a Lorentz transformation was required, making them
|
||
Lorentz covariant. But in general relativity, it is a more general
|
||
transformation, which includes both inertial frames and free-fall
|
||
frames, called “general covariance”. How objects change their
|
||
motion depends on centers of mass in their neighborhoods, and using
|
||
general covariance as a constraint, Einstein was able to deduce
|
||
equations that describe what classical physics attributed to a force
|
||
of gravity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Einstein’s
|
||
general theory of relativity describes a spacetime world in which the
|
||
accumulation of matter (both mass and energy) causes a “curvature”
|
||
in the surrounding spacetime. This curvature explains the
|
||
acceleration that Newtonian physics attributed to a force of
|
||
gravitation, because it determines, in turn, the inertial path for
|
||
any matter located there. (Such an inertial path though curved
|
||
spacetime is called a “geodesic”). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">GTR
|
||
also predicts various new phenomena, including the bending (and
|
||
slowing down) of light rays passing through gravitational fields, the
|
||
precession of the perihelion of Mercury, and a gravitational red
|
||
shift. These predictions all differ from classical physics, and since
|
||
GTR entails the possibility of black holes, including rotating black
|
||
holes, it has become the foundation of cosmology. Except for the
|
||
precession of Mercury’s perihelion, these phenomena were not even
|
||
expected before Einstein’s argument, much less explained, and so
|
||
the confirmation of these predictions justified accepting the general
|
||
theory by the empirical method of physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Realism
|
||
about the general theory of relativity, like realism about the
|
||
special theory, makes it hard to avoid thinking of spacetime as a
|
||
substance on a par with what it contains. The curvature of space­time
|
||
is supposed to <i>cause </i>the acceleration of mater that is
|
||
ordinarily attributed to gravity, and it would be hard to explain how
|
||
a property of spacetime can have such an effect on what it contains,
|
||
if spacetime did not exist independently of matter.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">GTR is,
|
||
like STR, a highly mathematical theory. Gravitation is described by
|
||
the Einstein field equations, which relate the distribution of mass
|
||
and non-gravitational energy to the curvature of spacetime.
|
||
Currently, GTR is usually interpreted in terms of differential
|
||
geometry. Spacetime is postulated as a four-dimensional continuous
|
||
manifold of points (<i>M</i>), and there are two kinds of (tensor)
|
||
equations defined everywhere on the manifold. The metric-field tensor
|
||
(<i>g</i>) defines the metric (and geometric) relations among points
|
||
in spacetime, and the stress-energy tensor (<i>T</i>) represents the
|
||
distribution of matter (mass and energy) in spacetime (and its
|
||
effects). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Jointly, <i>M,
|
||
g, </i>and <i>T</i> are called a “model” of GTR, and even for a
|
||
world with a particular distribution of mass and energy, there are
|
||
infinitely many different, yet empirically equivalent models. They
|
||
all predict the same gravitational phenomena, but each model involves
|
||
a different coordinate system, for each is based on a different local
|
||
inertial reference frames at its location in spacetime, that is,
|
||
adapted to material objects with different free-fall trajectories.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote21anc" href="#sdendnote21sym"><sup>xxi</sup></a></sup>
|
||
Their empirical equivalence is an assumption that Einstein used to
|
||
derive his field equations, and it is one of the meanings sometimes
|
||
given to “general relativity”. On this geometrical approach, GTR
|
||
also seems to imply substantivalism about spacetime, because the
|
||
four-dimensional manifold of points (<i>M</i>) must be postulated in
|
||
order to define the metric-field tensor (g) and stress-energy tensor
|
||
(T).<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote22anc" href="#sdendnote22sym"><sup>xxii</sup></a></sup></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
challenge that GTR poses for spatiomaterialism is that it implies
|
||
that what exists is spacetime, rather than space and matter existing
|
||
as substances in time. In a spacetime ontology, time is another
|
||
dimension of what exists on a par with the spatial dimensions (except
|
||
for a change in sign and the velocity of light as a scaling factor).
|
||
Its implications about time were used in </span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtfSTime.htm" target="Lo">Spatiomaterialism</a><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtfSTime.htm">:
|
||
Time</a></u></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">to
|
||
show that spatiomaterialism is a better ontological explanation of
|
||
nature than spacetime ontology (or “spatiotemporalism”).
|
||
Substantivalism about spacetime makes it impossible to explain “real
|
||
change”, because if what exists is a four-dimensional entity, and
|
||
time is part of its structure, then nothing can be coming into
|
||
existence or going out of existence as time passes. </span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As we saw
|
||
in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Spatiomaterialism, </font>there is
|
||
no way for spacetime substantivalism to avoid refutation by the fact
|
||
that our experience of change itself take place through time and we
|
||
are parts of nature, except by postulating an additional, subjective
|
||
substance, for whom spacetime and the events it contains have the
|
||
appearance of real change. Not only does the addition of such a
|
||
subjective substance make spacetime ontology more complex, but it
|
||
also poses the problem of relating eternal and enduring substances as
|
||
parts of the same world, a problem that Plato never solved. And even
|
||
if it could be solved, this modification would be <i>ad hoc</i>, for
|
||
it would explain nothing but the <i>appearance </i>that change takes
|
||
place through time. There is, therefore, no question that
|
||
spatiomaterialism is a better ontology, if it is possible. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
order to show that spatiomaterialism is possible is to show that it
|
||
can explain why GTR appears to be true, and that means explaining all
|
||
the relevant phenomena on the assumption that nothing exists but
|
||
space and matter enduring through time. This is to describe a model
|
||
or solution of the Einstein field equations that differs from the
|
||
prevailing geometrical interpretation because, instead of postulating
|
||
a four-dimensional manifold and defining geometrical objects on it,
|
||
spatiomaterialism postulates space and matter as substances enduring
|
||
through time. Nothing exists in a spatiomaterial world but what
|
||
exists at present, and thus, the interaction of space and matter must
|
||
somehow have an aspect that explains what Einsteinians are referring
|
||
to when they talk about “curved spacetime” and that aspect must
|
||
explain all the phenomena predicted by the general theory. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We can tell
|
||
that not in principle impossible for a world of substances that exist
|
||
only at the present moment to explain the truth of GTR, because even
|
||
on the received geometrical interpretation, there is a standard of
|
||
simultaneity implicit in each model’s assignment of space and time
|
||
coordinates to every event in the universe. All the spacetime events
|
||
with the same temporal coordinates that we now have in some model for
|
||
our universe (a certain “simultaneity hypersurface” in curved
|
||
spacetime) <i>could </i>be all that actually exists at the present
|
||
moment, and their spatial coordinates <i>could </i>be referring to
|
||
parts of a three dimensional Euclidean substance. Of course, this
|
||
could be true of only one model, for although every model assigns
|
||
some coordinates to us now, different models entail different
|
||
standards of simultaneity, and if different models were <i>ontologically
|
||
</i>equivalent, the substances constituting the world would have to
|
||
include spacetime. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Moreover,
|
||
in order to hold, in effect, that one of all possible models
|
||
represents absolute space and time, spatiomaterialism would have to
|
||
show that there is a law of gravitation that explains not only the
|
||
approximate truth of the Newtonian theory in it, but also all the new
|
||
phenomena predicted by GTR. We can also tell that such a law is not
|
||
in principle impossible, because GTR itself implies that the relevant
|
||
events in that model are all related in a regular way. Still, the
|
||
regularity would have to be described without referring to space­time
|
||
or spacetime curvature, that is, explained as constituted by
|
||
(Euclidean) space and matter enduring through time. And there would
|
||
be problem about the regularity, only if its description turned out
|
||
to be very complex. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Finally,
|
||
since spatiomaterialism would take reality to be equivalent to what
|
||
exists in a single model of GTR according to the received geometrical
|
||
approach, we should also expect the spatiomaterialist law of
|
||
gravitation to explain why different models are observationally
|
||
equivalent, that is, to explain “general relativity”, in the
|
||
sense that enabled Einstein to derive his mathematical representation
|
||
of gravitation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
is a tall order, but it is possible, as I will show here by giving an
|
||
ontological explanation of why Einstein’s GTR is true. It is an
|
||
intuitively intelligible explanation, rather than a mathematical
|
||
explanation, because what is required to explain the truth of any
|
||
theory ontologically is showing that there are aspects of the
|
||
substances postulated by the ontology that correspond to the theory.
|
||
That requires a qualitative argument, which identifies the kinds of
|
||
regularities and how they are related according to the theory, and
|
||
then shows that they can all correspond to aspects of the same world.
|
||
To be sure, the aspects of the substances pointed out must be
|
||
quantitatively adequate as well. But that is rather trivial, once the
|
||
qualitative argument has shown what the parameters are, how they are
|
||
related to one another, and the signs and order of magnitude of their
|
||
quantities, because substances can be postulated as having whatever
|
||
quantitative aspects are required to make the measurements come out
|
||
correctly. Thus, I will leave it as a challenge to those who would
|
||
disprove spatiomaterialism to show that the aspects identified here
|
||
cannot all be quantitatively accurate.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>A<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLGtr_03" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="53" border="0">cceleration
|
||
of the inherent motion in space. </b></font>How can gravitation be
|
||
explained in a spatiomaterial world? To be adequate, it must explain
|
||
not only the acceleration due to gravity that Newton recognized, but
|
||
also all the new phenomena predicted by the general theory of
|
||
relativity. That is a challenge, because it must do so without
|
||
appealing to spacetime. How can gravitation be explained with nothing
|
||
but two opposite substances that exist only at the present moment? </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">As
|
||
in the reduction of special relativity, there is no need to reject
|
||
the mathematical equations or the interpretations by which they are
|
||
tested empirically. All that needs to change is what we take them to
|
||
refer to. Since we shall be starting from the assumption that space
|
||
is absolute, this is to take an approach opposite to Einstein, just
|
||
as we did in explaining special relativity. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Einstein
|
||
called his explanation of gravitation a general “theory of
|
||
relativity” because he assumed that gravitational phenomena, like
|
||
all other phenomena, must obey the same laws in every reference
|
||
frame, and his strategy was to explain gravitation by describing a
|
||
way of transforming coordinates assigned by observers on different
|
||
reference frames into one another that leaves the laws of physics
|
||
unchanged. He assumed that the velocity of light has the same value
|
||
in every reference frame, and a tensor calculus was required to
|
||
formulate the mathematical transformation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As
|
||
ontologists, however, we start by assuming that space and matter are
|
||
substances existing in time, and since that means that light may have
|
||
different (one-way) velocities, different reference frames are not
|
||
ontologically equivalent. Thus, it is not appropriate to call it a
|
||
theory of relativity. On the contrary, it will explain the general
|
||
equivalence of reference frames, or the premise of Einstein’s
|
||
argument, as an <i>appearance </i>constituted by space and matter as
|
||
ontological causes, much as it did in explaining the premises of
|
||
Einstein’s argument in STR. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
key to the spatiomaterialist theory of gravitation is its explanation
|
||
of the apparent truth of STR. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In its
|
||
ontological explanation of the truth of the special theory,
|
||
spatiomaterialism rejects Einstein’s assumption that the velocity
|
||
of light is the same relative to every inertial frame and assumes,
|
||
instead, that it is due to an inherent motion in space. It also
|
||
assumes (or shows) that the motion of material objects through space
|
||
causes four Lorentz distortions in them. The Lorentz distortions
|
||
enable it to explain why inertial frames are empirically equivalent
|
||
locally, and by taking into account how clocks are mis-synchronized
|
||
on moving reference frames by adhering to Einstein’s definition of
|
||
simultaneity at a distance (that is, ignoring the difference between
|
||
the one-way velocities of light in each direction), they also explain
|
||
why inertial frames appear to be equivalent globally, that is, why
|
||
the (net) Lorentz distortion always seem to be occurring in the other
|
||
member of any pair of inertial frames. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">These
|
||
assumptions and conclusions are all taken for granted in explaining
|
||
the truth of the general theory of relativity, and only one
|
||
additional ontological assumption is required to explain gravitation.
|
||
That is the assumption <i>that the accumulation of matter at certain
|
||
locations in space has an effect on space, mediated by the inherent
|
||
motion in space, that, in effect, accelerates the inherent motion in
|
||
the nearby space toward it.</i> </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are
|
||
various consequences of this assumption. They are described in the
|
||
following sections, including their role in explaining the new
|
||
phenomena predicted by Einstein. One consequence has to do with the
|
||
velocity of light. Another has to do with effect on material objects
|
||
that are forced to remain at rest relative to space itself in a
|
||
gravitational field. The third is a result of how the effect of
|
||
matter accumulation on space is mediated by the inherent motion
|
||
itself. Finally, I will show how it explains the special phenomena
|
||
that occur in very strong gravitational fields, such as black holes.
|
||
At the end, I will return to the issue about the nature of the
|
||
argument and show how this ontological explanation of gravitation
|
||
explains “general relativity” in the sense of the observational
|
||
equivalence of different models of GTR, which Einstein used to derive
|
||
his conclusions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
constructing its theory of gravitation, spatiomaterialism takes its
|
||
lead, as Einstein did, from the assumption that reference frames
|
||
free-falling in gravitational fields are equivalent (locally) to
|
||
reference frames in inertial motion. Einstein called this the
|
||
“principle of equivalence.” But given its explanation of the
|
||
truth of STR, this principle has a somewhat different meaning, for
|
||
spatiomaterialism holds that different inertial frames, despite being
|
||
<i>observationally equivalent</i>, are <i>ontologically different.</i>
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">When
|
||
inertial frames have different velocities relative to one another, at
|
||
least one must be moving relative to space, and since that means
|
||
having a velocity relative to the inherent motion in space, we had to
|
||
assume that material objects suffer Lorentz distortions as a result
|
||
of their motion relative to the inherent motion in space, in order
|
||
explain why they appear equivalent (locally and globally). Now, in
|
||
order to explain all the old and new gravitational phenomena, we must
|
||
assume yet <i>another interaction between space and matter — </i>an
|
||
interaction that makes it appear that free falling frames are
|
||
observationally equivalent, locally, to inertial frames outside
|
||
gravitational fields. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Whereas
|
||
Einstein took gravitation to involve an interaction between matter
|
||
and spacetime, spatiomaterialism takes gravitation to involve an
|
||
interaction between matter and space. Spatiomaterialism assumes that,
|
||
instead of curving spacetime, accumulations of matter (mass and
|
||
energy) <i>change the velocity of the inherent motion in space. </i></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">I am
|
||
speaking as if the inherent motion were something actually moving
|
||
though space while space endures, as a substance, through time, but I
|
||
have admitted that, if you prefer, it can be taken as just a
|
||
spatio-temporal aspect of substantival space having to do with how
|
||
fast what occurs in one location in space can affect what happens
|
||
elsewhere. If space is to mediate the relations and interactions
|
||
among bits of matter, some such limit on the velocity of their
|
||
effects on one another is necessary, because otherwise
|
||
spatiomaterialism would have to give up its assumption that space is
|
||
a substance made up of many particular substances (one for each
|
||
location in space and all connected as described by Euclidean
|
||
geometry). There is no doubt that space involves an “inherent
|
||
motion” in the sense of having a spatio-temporal aspect about how
|
||
parts of space are related. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The only
|
||
issue is whether there is anything actually moving through space
|
||
other than bits of matter. That can be doubted, because, thus far, at
|
||
least, the only candidates for what moves across space are bits of
|
||
matter. Setting material objects aside (because the move slower than
|
||
the inherent motion), we have, thus far, come across nothing that
|
||
actually moves across space at that maximum velocity except light
|
||
(and the forces exerted by material objects with an electric charge),
|
||
which are forms of matter. The gravitational force is not an
|
||
exception, for even though it also propagates at the velocity of the
|
||
inherent motion, it is also a form of matter even on this theory (as
|
||
I suggested in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Forms of matter</font>).
|
||
But it does no harm to think of this aspect of the nature of space as
|
||
an inherent motion, for we have already recognized that space is a
|
||
substance enduring through time and seen that it must have a
|
||
spatio-temporal aspect to the relations of its parts. Moreover, in
|
||
explaining how quantum mechanics can be true in a spatiomaterial
|
||
world, we will find that something other than matter also moves
|
||
across space with the inherent motion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus, I
|
||
will continue to speak of space as if there were an inherent motion
|
||
through every location, moving at the same velocity both ways in
|
||
every direction in three dimensional space. It is something we can
|
||
imagine, because as rational beings, we are able to think about
|
||
space, time and motion, and thus, it will enable me to describe the
|
||
effect of matter accumulation on space in a qualitative way, in terms
|
||
of its effect on the inherent motion and, thereby, on all the
|
||
electromagnetic interactions that are mediated by it. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Those with
|
||
a more reactionary bent may, however, want to call the inherent
|
||
motion in space by its traditional name. It is actually an
|
||
ontological explanation of the ether. The luminiferous ether was
|
||
supposed to be a material substance of some kind at rest in absolute
|
||
space that mediated electric and magnetic forces like a very elastic
|
||
material substance. To be sure, we have no need to postulate any form
|
||
of matter to play the role of the ether, because we take space to be
|
||
a substance, and its inherent motion can mediate electromagnetic
|
||
interactions. But on the other hand, it would be appropriate to speak
|
||
of the inherent motion in space as the ether, and that means that the
|
||
new assumption being made here could be described just as well as an
|
||
<i>acceleration of the ether</i>. (I would use this term, except that
|
||
it is likely to inflame the antagonism of Einsteinians, who sometimes
|
||
like to portray their denial of absolute space as merely discrediting
|
||
a foolish metaphysical belief in unobservable entities.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
assumption that spatiomaterialism makes in order to explain
|
||
gravitation, therefore, is that <i>the accumulation of matter exerts
|
||
a force on other nearby bits of matter by way of its effect on the
|
||
inherent motion in space that changes the velocity of the inherent
|
||
motion in space as if the inherent motion itself were being
|
||
accelerated toward the center of gravity at the rate described by
|
||
Newton’s law.</i></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
inherent motion flows both ways in every direction, and the
|
||
gravitational change in the velocity of the inherent motion is
|
||
different in opposite directions. The inbound velocity of the
|
||
inherent motion is greater than it would be outside the gravitational
|
||
field, and the outbound velocity is correspondingly less than it
|
||
would be outside. Thus, it is as if the inherent motion itself had an
|
||
inbound velocity.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since the
|
||
inherent motion is a velocity both ways in every direction at every
|
||
location in space, there is always some pathway for material objects
|
||
relative to it in which the two one-way velocities of inherent motion
|
||
are equal in both directions. Let us call that motion relative to
|
||
space “rest relative to the inherent motion” (or for
|
||
reactionaries, “rest relative to the ether”). The effect of the
|
||
force of gravity is, therefore, equivalent to accelerating rest
|
||
relative to the inherent motion in space, so that it has velocity
|
||
relative to space in a gravitational field. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">(It might,
|
||
therefore, be better to describe the effect of the force of gravity
|
||
as accelerating the ether, because it is rest relative to the ether
|
||
that is undetectable. But that could be misleading. It might suggest
|
||
that ethereal matter is accumulating at the center of gravity,
|
||
whereas the inherent motion is just the way in which bits of matter
|
||
coincide with space, and thus, the acceleration of the inherent
|
||
motion is just a change in how bits of matter coincide with space.
|
||
But it is useful to keep in mind that there is an inertial frame at
|
||
rest relative to the inherent motion, and it is, in effect, what is
|
||
accelerated by the accumulation of matter.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
inbound velocity of the inherent motion at any point depends on how
|
||
much it has increased as a result of accelerating all the way in from
|
||
infinitely far away as a result of its acceleration. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The amount
|
||
of acceleration varies directly as the product of the amount of
|
||
matter (mass and energy) making up the objects accelerating one
|
||
another and inversely as the square of the distance between them in
|
||
space (though the force is exerted by way of the inherent motion).</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">At any
|
||
point in a gravitational field, therefore, the increase in the
|
||
inbound velocity of the inherent motion is equal to the escape
|
||
velocity at that point. That is, relative to space, the inherent
|
||
motion is moving toward the concentrated matter at the velocity of
|
||
light plus a velocity that is equal to the outbound velocity a
|
||
material object would have to have at that point relative to space to
|
||
escape gravity and eventually come to absolute rest outside its
|
||
influence. The decrease in the outward-bound velocity of the inherent
|
||
motion in space is likewise the escape velocity, making the outward
|
||
bound velocity of the inherent motion the velocity of light minus a
|
||
velocity equal to the velocity a material objects would have to have
|
||
to move outward and just escape the gravitational filed. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Since
|
||
the gravitational variation in the velocity of the inherent motion at
|
||
different points in space is equivalent to the acceleration of the
|
||
inherent motion, any matter that coincides with space by way of the
|
||
inherent motion also accelerates at the same rate. That includes, as
|
||
we shall see, all forms of matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Photons are
|
||
accelerated because they coincide with space in such a way that they
|
||
are carried along by the inherent motion in space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Material
|
||
objects also coincide with space by way of its inherent motion. This
|
||
is implicit in the spatiomaterialist explanation of the truth of STR.
|
||
What makes it impossible to detect its velocity relative to the
|
||
inherent motion experimentally are Lorentz distortions that material
|
||
objects suffer because of their motion relative to the inherent
|
||
motion. Indeed, some of those distortions depend on the difference in
|
||
the one-way velocities of light in opposite directions in the
|
||
direction of its motion relative to the inherent motion. Thus, when
|
||
the inherent motion itself is accelerating inward, any material
|
||
object that coincides with space by way of the inherent motion is
|
||
also accelerated in the same way. And since electric charges move
|
||
with the material objects and exert their forces by way of the
|
||
inherent motion, their electric fields are accelerated along with
|
||
them.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since
|
||
acceleration of matter by way of the acceleration of the inherent
|
||
motion is a form of potential energy, the gravitational field is
|
||
itself a form of matter. It is the form of matter I called
|
||
“gravitational matter” at the beginning of the ontological
|
||
explanation of the truth of the laws of physics (see <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Forms
|
||
of matter</font>), and the quantity of matter involved in
|
||
constituting the potential energy of gravitational field is counted
|
||
as part of the total matter (mass and energy) accumulated at the
|
||
center of accumulation. Thus, as the kinetic energy of material
|
||
objects increases because of their acceleration, the potential energy
|
||
not only declines, but becomes less than zero (or maximum potential
|
||
energy), and the total quantity of mass and energy is, thereby,
|
||
conserved. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">If
|
||
the center of matter accumulation itself is in motion relative to
|
||
space, then it already has a velocity relative to the inherent motion
|
||
in space and all the effects of its gravitational field are affected
|
||
accordingly. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Gravitation
|
||
involves, according to this ontological explanation of the truth of
|
||
the general theory, a second interaction between space and matter.
|
||
The first was the reaction of space to material objects that acquire
|
||
a high constant velocity relative to the inherent motion: it imposes
|
||
the Lorentz distortions on such material objects. The second is more
|
||
complex, because matter first causes a change in space, and then
|
||
space, in turn, causes a change in matter. That is, accumulations of
|
||
matter accelerate the inherent motion in space toward themselves, and
|
||
the acceleration of the inherent motion not only accelerates the bits
|
||
of matter it contains, but also changes the velocity of light at any
|
||
point in space (because the inherent motion accumulates inward
|
||
velocity over the entire gravitational field). It is as if space had
|
||
a compound effect on the matter it contains, because either effect
|
||
can occur separately, and both can happen at once. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The first
|
||
effect occurs separately when material objects have a constant
|
||
velocity relative to the inherent motion outside of a gravitational
|
||
field. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The second
|
||
effect occurs separately when material objects are at rest relative
|
||
to the inherent motion being accelerated into a center of mass that
|
||
is at rest in absolute space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Both
|
||
effects occur either when material objects have a constant finite
|
||
velocity relative to an inherent motion that is being accelerated
|
||
into a center of gravity that is at rest, or when the accumulation of
|
||
matter itself has a constant velocity relative to the inherent motion
|
||
in space outside gravitation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Let
|
||
us consider the consequences of this additional assumption about the
|
||
nature of space and matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
ontological assumption explains why Newton’s law is approximately
|
||
true in all those areas where it is recognized to be a good
|
||
approximation, because it differs from Newton’s theory only in its
|
||
assumption that gravitation acts by way of the inherent motion, that
|
||
is, that it accelerates the surrounding inherent motion in space and
|
||
that it does so as a force that is itself propagated by that inherent
|
||
motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
also explains Einstein’s equivalence principle ontologically. It
|
||
entails that local experiments on free falling frames come out the
|
||
same as on inertial frames outside gravity, for in both cases they
|
||
have a constant velocity relative to the ether. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">But
|
||
the spatiomaterialist theory also explains intuitively certain new
|
||
phenomena used to confirm Einstein’s GTR, including the three new
|
||
kinds of phenomena that have been used to confirm the general theory
|
||
as well as the predictions about black holes. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">V<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAJYAAAAPCAMAAAAxtsZbAAAAS1BMVEUAAAANDAkcGBMzAAAqJR04MSZBAABPAABGPjBmAABwAAB6AABjV0NxY01/cFeOfGGciWqqlXS4on7HrojVu5Hjx5v8A/sAAAD////B+RkxAAAAF3RSTlP/////////////////////////////AOZA5l4AAAE8SURBVHic7ZXbUoQwDIZXbLRq0jZN8/6vagJdl2WsA1zsOI7/dDg0p4/QwuXyr0PSgerIYGLxo7R93kd1xeIJQt4aQRUHcYjsJ2LN9eat44CTWDTnFTI2ZvJSmYIdbDC12cJLSE5NZSLpWN62nJKFux93A1eSRnbdypKE+BQWUCye2rpAyAaUkKcZFVKJqqEQzRFEBbQFbh3LRnd1P7kaIjcpnidoRU3E5RQWMoP4qyQvBLoZ1k1esL4mb1gb725QifBkfcooygHPdctqIttzaeuFoqxrmaVj2XzYYMX2LRYVv2sQPalMp7CsT8aEAXLHqiFOq1oIccGqYC73WGvXCNe90KcVfXUFOLQXfvxArFV4/Bqk+OobCY7wdO3HovGatS3XhkY5tKi6dmM9Vg/6j/wdfby/vb48/zZ9AokJbxbKfkSVAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCLGtr_04" align="right" hspace="5" width="300" height="30" border="0">ariation
|
||
in the velocity of light.</font> The most immediate effect of the
|
||
acceleration of the inherent motion is on the velocity of light. The
|
||
photon coincides with space by having some direction in the inherent
|
||
motion wherever it is located and being carried along by the inherent
|
||
motion in space. Thus, the motion of the photon relative to space
|
||
manifests the inherent motion in space any motion that the inherent
|
||
motion itself has relative to space because of the gravitational
|
||
field.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Since
|
||
the inherent motion is different at different locations in space as a
|
||
function of the force of gravity, a photon traveling inward toward
|
||
the center of matter will accelerate as it moves, acquiring a
|
||
velocity relative to space that is higher than the velocity of light
|
||
outside of the influence of gravitation. Correspondingly, a photon
|
||
moving outward will leave the center of mass with a velocity relative
|
||
to space that is less than it would have outside of gravitation, and
|
||
it will accelerate all the time it is moving outwards until it
|
||
reaches the velocity of light outside gravitation just as it escapes
|
||
the gravitational field. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
quantity of the increase (decrease) in the velocity of light at any
|
||
point in space relative to what it would be if there were no
|
||
gravitational force depends on the escape velocity, that is, how much
|
||
velocity a bit of matter would acquire as a result of being acted on
|
||
by the gravitational force as it moves across the gravitational
|
||
field. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Consider
|
||
for simplicity’s sake a center of matter (mass and energy) that is
|
||
at rest in absolute space. The theory is that when matter accumulates
|
||
in space, it acts on the surrounding space in a way that is
|
||
equivalent to accelerating the inherent motion in space toward it,
|
||
giving the inherent motion itself a velocity relative to absolute
|
||
space. The rate of acceleration is determined by the force of gravity
|
||
(which declines as the square of the distance from the center of
|
||
gravity), and that means that the photon starts accelerating
|
||
infinitely far away from the gravitating body and accumulates speed
|
||
as it continues to accelerate inward (with its rate of acceleration
|
||
becoming greater as the gravitational force increases), so that at
|
||
points nearer the center of gravity, the photon has an instantaneous,
|
||
inward velocity that is equal to the velocity of light outside
|
||
gravitation plus the escape velocity at that point in the
|
||
gravitational field. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
gravitating body is not at rest in absolute space, but is itself
|
||
moving relative the inherent motion in space, that will also alter
|
||
the velocity of light the same way at every point throughout its
|
||
gravitational field. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">When
|
||
enough matter accumulates to accelerate the inherent motion itself to
|
||
a velocity in space that is faster than the velocity of light outside
|
||
any gravitational field, it is called a “black hole.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote23anc" href="#sdendnote23sym"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
|
||
The so-called Schwartzschild radius of a black hole at rest in space
|
||
is the surface in space at which the inward velocity of the virtual
|
||
inherent motion equals the velocity that light would have in that
|
||
direction at that location, if the inherent motion were at absolute
|
||
rest. Inward-bound light crossing that surface would have a velocity
|
||
relative to space twice what light would have outside of gravitation,
|
||
and thus, it is impossible for light being carried in the opposite
|
||
direction by the inherent motion to cross that surface. Outward bound
|
||
photons at the Schwartzschild radius of a black hole would be at rest
|
||
relative to space.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Gravitational
|
||
bending of light rays.</b></i> The effect of the acceleration of the
|
||
inherent motion on the velocity of light explains the most famous new
|
||
prediction of the general theory, namely, the bending of light rays
|
||
in a gravitational field. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Given
|
||
that light, as a form of energy, has a mass and exerts a
|
||
gravitational force, Newton’s law can be used to predict that light
|
||
will be bent from its straight path by the force of gravity, much
|
||
like a material object. But the general theory of relativity predicts
|
||
that the light ray will be bent at about twice the rate predicted by
|
||
Newton’s theory. And in a famous expedition in 1918, Eddington
|
||
found that Einstein was correct by measuring the direction of a ray
|
||
of light from a distant star as it passed behind the sun during an
|
||
eclipse and the distant star could be seen. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
greater effect of gravitation predicted by Einstein is what would be
|
||
expected on the spatiomaterialist explanation of gravitation, because
|
||
two factors are involved in determining the pathway of the photon. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">First, as
|
||
the light ray passes the gravitating body, it is pulled sideways into
|
||
the center of gravity by the inward acceleration of the inherent
|
||
motion in the transverse direction, which diverts it from a straight
|
||
path, much as expected on Newtonian grounds. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Second, as
|
||
the photon is approaching the center of gravity, the inward
|
||
acceleration of the inherent motion gives light an inward velocity
|
||
higher than it would have outside the gravitational field. But since
|
||
the inherent motion on the other side of the center of gravity has
|
||
been accelerated in the opposite direction, the photon slows down as
|
||
it passes the gravitating body to a velocity that is lower than it
|
||
would be outside gravitation, and then it gradually speeds it up
|
||
again to the normal velocity of light relative to space as it moves
|
||
out of the gravitational field on the other side. The result of these
|
||
changes in the velocity of light is that the photon spends a
|
||
disproportionately longer period of its entire trip near the center
|
||
of gravity where the sideways acceleration of the inherent motion
|
||
toward the center is greatest than it does farther away when the
|
||
sideways acceleration of the inherent motion is minimal. That
|
||
explains the higher value of bending predicted by Einstein.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote24anc" href="#sdendnote24sym"><sup>xxiv</sup></a></sup></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Time
|
||
delay in radar signals.</b></i> The effect of the acceleration of the
|
||
inherent motion on the pathways of photons can also explain the time
|
||
delay in radar signals reflected back to earth from planets on the
|
||
far side of the sun when the paths of those signals lie near the sun.
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is a <i>spatial </i>symmetry about the velocity changes that occur
|
||
both times the radar signal approaches and recedes from the sun. The
|
||
signal gains velocity as it approaches the sun, because the inherent
|
||
motion is accelerating under gravity in that direction. But it
|
||
quickly comes to have a lower velocity than light outside of
|
||
gravitation as it passes by the sun, because of the inbound
|
||
acceleration of the inherent motion on the other side of the sun. And
|
||
then the signal regains velocity as it recedes, because the inward
|
||
velocity of the inherent motion on the other side is lower the father
|
||
away from the sun. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
might seem that there should be no net effect on the total time it
|
||
takes for the light signal to pass by the sun, because the higher
|
||
velocity of its approach to the sun will be canceled out by the lower
|
||
velocity of its retreat from the sun on the opposite side. After all,
|
||
the approaching signal travels just as <i>far </i>at each higher
|
||
velocity as the receding signal travels at comparably lower
|
||
velocities. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is, however, a net slowing down of the period required for the entire
|
||
trip, because the equal distance on each side of the sun entails that
|
||
the light signal spends more <i>time </i>traveling at slower
|
||
velocities than it does traveling at faster velocities. Hence, it
|
||
cannot make up all the time it loses going slower in the time it
|
||
spends going faster. This happens both ways on its round-way trip to
|
||
the distant planet, causing an overall delay in the radar signal’s
|
||
return that does not occur when its path is not near the sun.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote25anc" href="#sdendnote25sym"><sup>xxv</sup></a></sup></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLGtr_05" align="right" hspace="5" width="300" height="32" border="0">ime
|
||
dilation caused by acceleration relative to the inherent motion.</font>
|
||
Another famous prediction of Einstein’s general theory of
|
||
relativity is the so-called “gravitational red shift,” or a time
|
||
dilation in gravitational fields. That is, all physical processes on
|
||
material objects are slowed down at a rate that depends on the
|
||
potential energy of the gravitational field (which would vary
|
||
directly with the altitude, if the force of gravity were constant).
|
||
It predicts that such a time dilation will be observed both in
|
||
objects at rest in a gravitational field and in objects in free fall
|
||
in a gravitational field. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Gravitational
|
||
time was observed by Pound and Rebca (1960) demonstrating a
|
||
difference in the rate of oscillation of iron nuclei at the top and
|
||
bottom of a tower at Harvard.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It was also
|
||
observed in signals sent by a hydrogen maser shot up above the earth
|
||
and allowed to fall back by Vessot (1980). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Gravitational
|
||
time dilation can be explained by the spatiomaterialist theory of
|
||
gravitation, but it implies that physical processes are actually
|
||
slowed down only when material objects are at rest in a gravitational
|
||
field. Objects in free fall in a gravitational field are not
|
||
affected. But there is an appearance of a time dilation in objects in
|
||
free fall that is caused by the change in the velocity of the light
|
||
by which the speed of falling clocks is observed. Let us, therefore,
|
||
consider each case separately. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>R<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADYAAAAPCAMAAACY7syKAAAASFBMVEUAAAAcGBMzAAAqJR04MSZBAABPAABGPjBmAABwAAB6AABjV0NxY01/cFeOfGGciWqqlXS4on7HrojVu5Hjx5v8A/sAAAD////BH3lpAAAAFnRSTlP///////////////////////////8AAdLA5AAAAGlJREFUeJzFjksOgDAIBavFL9iPffc/qxh1YdIF3eiQEAJMwLmPQY1c7d48WurI768JmTRBFGCXoHdkK1aNNXT3zCnFyaoR8/WqaE1kf5IjsqoFVNCggTLYU0DwbNUa+UH7knWZx6Fv5QBPcSUGvSam4QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" name="TtsOtkCLGtr_06" align="right" hspace="5" width="125" height="34" border="0">eal
|
||
gravitational time dilation.</b></i> The principle of equivalence
|
||
implies that material objects at rest in a gravitational field will
|
||
suffer a time dilation, and the ontological explanation of the
|
||
equivalence principle according to the spatiomaterialist theory of
|
||
gravitation implies that the rate of time dilation is proportional to
|
||
the energy that would be required to accelerate the object to keep in
|
||
at rest given its velocity relative to the inherent motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
distortion is like the Lorentz time dilation, except that it depends
|
||
on resisting the gravitational acceleration of the inherent motion
|
||
rather than having a constant velocity relative to it. According to
|
||
the spatiomaterialist theory, a clock at rest in a gravitational
|
||
field, for example, will be slowed down compared to a clock in free
|
||
fall. If a free falling clock happened to have an initial upward
|
||
velocity in a gravitational field like a ball thrown into the sky and
|
||
it was synchronized with a clock at rest on its way up, then, when it
|
||
passed the same rest clock again on its way down, the rest clock will
|
||
have fallen behind by an amount that depends on the period between
|
||
the measurements and the energy required each unit of time to resist
|
||
the acceleration of the inherent motion and keep it from falling in
|
||
gravity, given the velocity of the accelerated inherent motion at
|
||
that point. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
“gravitational red shift” in objects at rest is usually explained
|
||
as a consequence of Einstein’s equivalence principle. Consider two
|
||
clocks at rest at different altitudes in a gravitational field and
|
||
what happens to a regular signal (such as photons of a certain
|
||
frequency) sent between them, say from the upper rest clock to the
|
||
lower. (See Diagram of Gravitational red shift.) The equivalence
|
||
principle implies that, when this interaction is observed from a free
|
||
falling frame, it must obey the same laws that hold for inertial
|
||
frames outside gravitational fields.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Consider,
|
||
therefore, a free falling frame as long as the distance between the
|
||
two rest clocks, and suppose that it had been shot upwards so that
|
||
its inertial motion brings the top of the free falling frame
|
||
momentarily to rest in space alongside the upper rest clock just as
|
||
it sends a photon of a certain frequency toward the bottom rest
|
||
clock. If the photon were intercepted by the bottom free falling
|
||
clock, it would have the same frequency observed when it left,
|
||
because that is what would be observed if the inertial frame were
|
||
outside the gravitational field. But that is not how the photon would
|
||
appear to the bottom rest clock, as can be predicted by observers on
|
||
the free falling frame. All the time that the photon is traveling
|
||
downward, the free falling frame is also accelerating downward, and
|
||
thus, when the observer at the bottom of the free falling frame sees
|
||
the photon being received by the bottom rest clock, that clock will
|
||
be moving upward toward the photon. Such motion would cause a Doppler
|
||
effect, and so the free falling observer predicts that the photon
|
||
will be measured by the bottom rest clock as having a higher
|
||
frequency than the photon sent by the upper rest clock. Indeed, this
|
||
is what the rest observer does find, according to GTR and actual
|
||
experiment. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="GravRedShift" align="bottom" width="369" height="443" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In this
|
||
case, it is a gravitational blue shift, but if the signal had been
|
||
sent upward, it would be a red shift. (By the time the photon arrived
|
||
at the top rest clock, the free falling frame whose bottom clock was
|
||
momentarily at rest beside the bottom rest clock when the signal was
|
||
sent would have accelerated down­ward, and so the top free
|
||
falling observers would see the top rest clock as receding upward
|
||
when the signal arrives, entailing the prediction of a Doppler red
|
||
shift, that is, a lower frequency of light received by observer
|
||
located by the top rest clock.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
is the cause of the red/blue shift observed by the receiving rest
|
||
clock? </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">GTR
|
||
explains the frequency change by the spacetime curvature between the
|
||
two clocks, but it does not say whether it results from a change in
|
||
the frequency of light signals during the flight or a difference in
|
||
the intrinsic rates of rest clocks at different altitudes. Will
|
||
(1986, p. 49-50) says that “it doesn’t matter” whether the
|
||
“light signal changes frequency during the flight” or the
|
||
“intrinsic rate . . of the clocks change”, because there is “no
|
||
operational way to distinguish between the two descriptions”.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Spatiomaterialism,
|
||
however, cannot be indifferent, for it assumes that space and matter
|
||
are substances that exist only at the present moment, and that means
|
||
that the red/blue shift cannot involve any actual change in the
|
||
frequency of signals as they travel across space through time. The
|
||
frequency, or period between signals, cannot change, regardless how
|
||
the velocity of light may change along the path, as long as each
|
||
signal follows <i>the same path </i>in real time. The only possible
|
||
spatiomaterialist explanation is that the frequency shift is an
|
||
appearance due to an actual slowing down of the rest clock (and all
|
||
processes involving material objects at rest). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Spatiomaterialism
|
||
explains why the clocks at rest are slowed down by their relationship
|
||
to the inherent motion. The inherent motion is accelerating at the
|
||
location of the clock, which is evident in the free falling frame,
|
||
and thus, the rest clock must be accelerated relative to it in order
|
||
to keep it at rest. In order to understand the relationship between
|
||
these two reference frames, let us consider the equivalent situation
|
||
outside of gravitation according to the spatiomaterialist theory. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
relationship between these two reference frames in the gravitational
|
||
field is not equivalent to one reference frame being accelerated
|
||
relative to some inertial reference frame outside gravitation unless
|
||
both frames are also in motion relative to the inherent motion in
|
||
space, because at any point in a gravitational field, the inherent
|
||
motion has acquired a certain velocity relative to absolute space.
|
||
Thus, let us consider two reference frames outside of gravity that
|
||
have the same velocity relative to the inherent motion as those in
|
||
the gravitational frame, and let us suppose that one of them is
|
||
accelerated relative to the other. In such a case, the Doppler effect
|
||
would cause the same red (or blue) shift, depending on which way one
|
||
frame was accelerated relative to the other during the brief interval
|
||
of measurement. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Outside a
|
||
gravitational field, the Doppler effect would not be interpreted as a
|
||
time dilation, because it would be explained by the change in the
|
||
velocity of one of the frame relative to the inherent motion due to
|
||
its acceleration during the interval of measurement. The situation in
|
||
the gravitational field is different because the acceleration of one
|
||
frame relative to the other does not change the velocity of either
|
||
one of them relative to the inherent motion.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote26anc" href="#sdendnote26sym"><sup>xxvi</sup></a></sup>
|
||
Instead, it is the inherent motion itself that is being accelerated.
|
||
Thus, the red (or blue) shift cannot be explained as a result of the
|
||
change in velocity relative to the inherent motion due to the
|
||
acceleration of the frame at rest in gravitation, as it is outside
|
||
gravitation. It can only be the result of a slowing down of physical
|
||
processes on the reference frame at rest in gravitation. Thus, it is
|
||
a real time dilation.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Rest clocks
|
||
at different altitudes in a gravitational field suffer different
|
||
rates of time dilation, even though they may be resisting the same
|
||
rate of acceleration in the inherent motion (as in a uniform
|
||
gravitational field). This can be explained on the spatiomaterialist
|
||
theory, because they have different velocities relative to the
|
||
inherent motion. Outside a gravitational field, according to
|
||
Newtonian physics, different amounts of energy are required for the
|
||
same acceleration in objects when the objects have different
|
||
velocities. The force per unit time is the same, but since at higher
|
||
velocities, the force must be exerted over a greater distance, and
|
||
thus, the energy consumed in exerting the force over that period of
|
||
time is greater. That is, the rate of gravitational time dilation is
|
||
proportional, not the force required to accelerate the rest clock,
|
||
but to the amount of energy required. (At lower altitudes, the force
|
||
has to act over a greater distance relative to rest in the inherent
|
||
motion in order to keep the clock at rest.) This explains why the
|
||
rate of time dilation is proportional to the potential energy for its
|
||
location in the gravitational field (or the kinetic energy an object
|
||
falling from outside the gravitational field would have at that
|
||
point).</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>A<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADYAAAAQCAMAAABqbnzEAAAAS1BMVEUAAAANDAk9AAAqJR04MSZBAABJAABVAABGPjBmAAByAAB7AABjV0NxY01/cFeOfGGciWqqlXS4on7HrojVu5Hjx5v8A/sAAAD///90C4AqAAAAF3RSTlP/////////////////////////////AOZA5l4AAAC0SURBVHicvZLRDoMgDEVl7ZRNWijQ///VFeJ0mizRF28KAW4PNMAwv1/T+Hxc1DA3bhovarhbelkb5vhEeo4HLDK0PnLVktjcTDbUmMk6Kt1SJaQ95mvIdmRiUgEJoiLJqyKJMreRS8QazfjFKggHy2oh1AOxz6whum19h3EgguaV0LwYFasumC9a/2DN5qTOQ7Yi0ZgIYcEy4LeKCnC4ya6WtW556gG6+v0WuYqd1U3/cNUHqaglwVATM+YAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="TtsOtkCLGtr_07" align="right" hspace="5" width="125" height="37" border="0">pparent
|
||
gravitational red shift.</b></i> An actual gravitational time
|
||
dilation occurs only when the clock is being accelerated against the
|
||
acceleration of the inherent motion. A clock in free fall in a
|
||
gravitational field will actually tick away at the same rate as a
|
||
clock outside of the gravitational field. But a clock free falling in
|
||
a gravitational field will appear to suffer a gravitational time
|
||
dilation, because the motion of the clock across the gravitational
|
||
potential means that any signals it sends out at regular intervals
|
||
will be received later than they are expected, making it seem like
|
||
the clock is slowed down. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Consider
|
||
a clock in free fall sending signals out of a gravitational field. To
|
||
observers outside the gravitational field, those signals will make it
|
||
appear that the clock is suffering a time dilation, though it is not,
|
||
because in addition to the normal Doppler shift expected from the
|
||
velocity it acquires from free fall, signals sent back from lower
|
||
altitudes will also travel the additional distance <i>at lower
|
||
velocities of light </i>because the outbound velocity of light is
|
||
lower (because the inbound velocity of the inherent motion is greater
|
||
the closer it is to the center of gravity). Each signal will be
|
||
delayed a bit longer than expected. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Or
|
||
consider a clock shot upwards in a gravitational field that sends
|
||
regular signals to earth (Vessot’s experiment). The signals
|
||
received from the clock on earth will be affected by several factors
|
||
apart from gravitation, including its location at the moment the
|
||
signal is sent and its instantaneous velocity. These factors can be
|
||
calculated and compared with the signals actually received. The
|
||
actual signals will seem to be arriving sooner that expected the
|
||
higher the clock goes, making it seem that the clock must be speeding
|
||
up as it rises out of the gravitational field. But that is not proof
|
||
that objects in free fall suffer a time dilation. Instead, it merely
|
||
indicates that the light signal is traveling faster toward earth than
|
||
the velocity of light outside of gravitation, and the higher the
|
||
clock rises, the more different this factor makes (though the effect
|
||
decreases as the altitude increases, because the signal travels the
|
||
additional distance at a velocity that is closer to what it is
|
||
outside gravitation).</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
spatiomaterialist explanation of gravitational time dilation in
|
||
general relativity resembles its explanation of the global
|
||
equivalence of inertial frames in special relativity, because in both
|
||
cases it recognizes both real and apparent distortions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In special
|
||
relativity, the Lorentz distortions are real in inertial frames that
|
||
are moving relative to the inherent motion. But to observers on such
|
||
a moving inertial frame, the inertial frame at rest relative to the
|
||
inherent motion <i>appears </i>to be suffering Lorentz distortions.
|
||
(The appearance is caused, as we have seen, by the
|
||
mis-synchronization of clocks on the moving inertial frame and how
|
||
that combines with its real Lorentz distortions.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In general
|
||
relativity, the gravitational time dilation is real material objects
|
||
that are at rest in a gravitational frame, because that is how
|
||
accelerate reference frames are related to the inherent motion. But
|
||
free falling clocks appear to be suffering a time dilation, because
|
||
as the clock falls, the signals travel pathways from the clock to the
|
||
stationary observer at various velocities that are either faster or
|
||
slower than the velocity of light outside of gravitation, depending
|
||
on where the is located when the signal is sent. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">P<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLGtr_08" align="right" hspace="5" width="300" height="32" border="0">ropagation
|
||
of the gravitational force through the inherent motion.</font> The
|
||
final famous prediction of Einstein’s general theory of relativity
|
||
is precession of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit around the sun
|
||
As Mercury orbits the sun, the main axis of its elliptical orbit
|
||
rotates slowly around the sun (in the same direction as Mercury
|
||
itself). It is a very small rotation (about 43 seconds of an arc per
|
||
century, setting aside the other perturbations that Newtonian physics
|
||
can also explain. This phenomenon also has an explanation in terms of
|
||
the acceleration of the inherent motion in space according to the
|
||
spatiomaterialist explanation of gravitation. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
gravitational force is exerted by a center where matter has
|
||
accumulated by way of the inherent motion, that is, at the outbound
|
||
velocity of light in the inherent motion it affects. The force is
|
||
like a pulse of attraction propagating outward from the gravitating
|
||
body, accelerating the inherent motion toward itself wherever the
|
||
pulse reaches. The force is steady, because one pulse follows another
|
||
continuously. But the gravitational force exerted anywhere in the
|
||
field imposed by these pulses is exerted locally, by the inherent
|
||
motion though which matter of any kind coincides with space at that
|
||
point. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Gravitational
|
||
waves.</b></i> It helps to have a concrete model of how the
|
||
gravitational force is exerted, and so let us think of it as being
|
||
exerted by a flow of outbound pulses through the inherent motion
|
||
affecting the velocity of inherent motion itself that it passes
|
||
through. That will enable us to see why there are gravitational
|
||
waves, as predicted by Einstein’s general theory of relativity. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">When a
|
||
gravitating body is at rest in space, its force field is basically
|
||
spherical. The center of matter exerts a gravitational force on the
|
||
surrounding space by way of the inherent motion (at the velocity of
|
||
outbound light in it), and the acceleration it imposes on the
|
||
inherent motion itself falls off at the square of the distance.
|
||
Though the acceleration felt at any point in the gravitational field
|
||
depends on a force that started propagating from the central body
|
||
earlier, the acceleration at that point does not change over time,
|
||
because each pulse of gravitational force is followed by another
|
||
pulse the next moment. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">At any
|
||
point in the field, the arrival of a gravitational pulse accelerates
|
||
the inherent motion inward (increasing its inbound velocity as it
|
||
pulls it inward), but the pulse then moves on to the next location in
|
||
space and does the same thing to the inherent motion located there.
|
||
At each moment at any point in space, the inherent motion itself that
|
||
arrives from farther out (because of the last pulse) is subject to
|
||
the next pulse of gravitation, and so the inherent motion itself is
|
||
accelerated inward, giving it a higher inbound velocity as it moves
|
||
closer to the gravitating body. The gravitational field is,
|
||
therefore, like a flow of gravitational pulses outward in the
|
||
inherent motion everywhere pulling the inherent motion itself toward
|
||
the gravitating body. Thus, it is a steady gravitational force field,
|
||
which would affect objects in the way Newton’s law predicts.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However,
|
||
when a gravitating body is moving back and forth across space (for
|
||
example, when a pair of dense astronomical bodies are in orbit around
|
||
one another), the pulses of forces propagating outward from the
|
||
gravitating body come from different locations from one moment to the
|
||
next, and thus, there is a wavelike change in the acceleration of the
|
||
inherent motion at a distance. Thus, any material objects located
|
||
there will feel a gravitational force that is changing directions
|
||
from moment to moment. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since the
|
||
gravitational wave can accelerate material objects, it carries
|
||
potential energy across space, and thus, it is a form of matter
|
||
(which we are calling “gravitational matter”). If the
|
||
gravitational field were imposed by a gravitating body at rest in
|
||
space, the gravitational matter constituting it would be counted as
|
||
part of the total quantity of matter (mass and energy) accumulated at
|
||
its center (because the gravitational force is accelerating the
|
||
inherent motion toward itself). But the gravitational matter making
|
||
up waves is not counted in the rest masses of the gravitating bodies
|
||
generating it (because the gravitational force is not accelerating
|
||
the inherent motion toward itself. Thus, gravitating bodies lose
|
||
energy as they exert gravitational waves. (The astronomical bodies
|
||
orbiting one another will slow down and eventually fall into one
|
||
another.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Precession
|
||
of the perihelion of Mercury.</b></i> This explanation of how the
|
||
force of gravitation is exerted can explain the precession of the
|
||
perihelion of Mercury (or any planet around a star). The inherent
|
||
motion itself is accelerated by gravitation, and thus the force of
|
||
gravitation that is felt by any bit of matter depends on the
|
||
acceleration of inherent motion in the part of space where it is
|
||
located at the time. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since the
|
||
sun is so much more massive than Mercury, we can treat it as if it
|
||
were at rest in space. Thus, although it is sending out pulses of
|
||
gravitation through the inherent motion that accelerate the inherent
|
||
motion it reaches towards itself, the gravitational field is
|
||
basically spherical, with the strength of the gravitational force
|
||
falling off at the square of the distance. This is the gravitational
|
||
field through which Mercury moves.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Mercury is
|
||
moving roughly perpendicular to the sun’s radial force field, and
|
||
if that were all that determined the gravitational force that Mercury
|
||
feels, Mercury would follow the pathway predicted by Newton’s law
|
||
of gravitation (because its being the result of a pulse of
|
||
gravitation propagating from the sun does not make any difference to
|
||
the force that Mercury feels). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Mercury is
|
||
also, however, another gravitating body. It is sending out pulses of
|
||
gravitational attraction radically in the inherent motion,
|
||
accelerating the inherent motion itself towards itself. Insofar as
|
||
its pulses are oriented in the same direction as those propagating
|
||
radially from the sun, this will make no difference, because
|
||
Mercury’s force will be acting on an inherent motion that is
|
||
everywhere being accelerated toward the sun. However, Mercury will
|
||
also be accelerating the inherent motion toward itself in directions
|
||
perpendicular to the sun’s radial forces. And since the sun’s
|
||
radial pulses of gravitational forces travel by way of the inherent
|
||
motion, they follow the path of light rays, and since Mercury will be
|
||
bending light rays that pass by it (just as the sun does; see
|
||
<font face="Arial, sans-serif">Gravitational bending of light rays</font>),
|
||
Mercury will be bending the sun’s pulses of gravitational forces
|
||
toward itself as they pass by.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img 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" name="Precession" align="bottom" width="425" height="300" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
acceleration of the inherent motion toward Mercury changes the
|
||
location of the sun’s gravitational forces, but not the direction
|
||
in which those forces accelerate bits of matter. As radial forces,
|
||
they are normally pointing at the sun. But consider what happens to
|
||
the inherent motion ahead of Mercury as it moves perpendicular to
|
||
those radial forces. As it accelerates the inherent motion toward
|
||
itself, it shifts the location of the inherent motion itself (the
|
||
bending of the light rays), and thus, the gravitational force that
|
||
would be exerted in those parts of space are no longer directed at
|
||
the sun, but are slightly offset. They point to a location relative
|
||
to Mercury that the sun would otherwise have only later in its orbit.
|
||
Thus, when Mercury coincides with the part of space in which the
|
||
displaced inherent motion is located, the force of gravitation will
|
||
not be in the direction of the sun, but slightly offset.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
there is a symmetry about the acceleration of the inherent motion in
|
||
front of Mercury and behind in its direction of motion. After all,
|
||
light rays are bent towards it as they pass either in front or behind
|
||
Mercury. But there is an asymmetry caused by Mercury’s motion. It
|
||
is moving toward the inherent motion accelerated towards it in front,
|
||
and it is moving away from the inherent motion accelerated towards it
|
||
from behind. Thus, Mercury is affected by the displaced gravitational
|
||
forces ahead of it, because it is moving into the parts of space
|
||
where they are located. And it is moving away from the parts of space
|
||
where the displaced gravitational forces behind it are located. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The net
|
||
effect of the asymmetry caused by Mercury’s motion into the
|
||
inherent motion it has accelerated towards itself in front of it as
|
||
it moves is that its change of location relative to space amounts to
|
||
a greater change of location relative to the inherent motion. The
|
||
gravitational pulses, like light rays, are pulled closer together in
|
||
front of it, so that its velocity relative to space makes a greater
|
||
change in the direction of the gravitational force it feels than
|
||
would otherwise be the case.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since
|
||
through its orbit, the direction of the sun’s force is always
|
||
displaced in the same direction (as if Mercury were farther along in
|
||
its orbit than it actually is), the sun’s gravitational force is
|
||
always making Mercury change direction faster than it would
|
||
otherwise, and thus, the orbit as a whole precesses around the sun in
|
||
the same direction as Mercury itself.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
alteration in the direction of the effective gravitational force of
|
||
the sun on Mercury is the major factor accounting for the precession,
|
||
but there are two additional factors making it different from
|
||
Newtonian expectations, which are relatively minor. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">First, the
|
||
propagation of Mercury’s pulses of gravitational attraction outward
|
||
in the inherent motion is not quite at the velocity of light, because
|
||
its acceleration of the inherent motion has given it an inbound
|
||
velocity. In front of Mercury as it is moving though the inherent
|
||
motion perpendicular to the sun’s radial acceleration, Mercury’s
|
||
outbound pulses of gravitation have a velocity that is less than the
|
||
velocity of light outside of gravitation by the escape velocity at
|
||
each point in its outbound propagation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Second,
|
||
since Mercury itself is a material object, its motion relative to the
|
||
inherent motion subjects it to Lorentz distortions, including a
|
||
relativistic mass increase. Thus, it takes a greater gravitational
|
||
force to change its direction. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">P<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLGtr_09" align="right" hspace="5" width="300" height="30" border="0">henomena
|
||
in Strong Gravitational Fields.</font> The acceleration of the
|
||
inherent motion in space is what replaces the curvature of spacetime
|
||
in the spatiomaterialist explanation of gravitation. But we have
|
||
considered mainly phenomena involving weak gravitational fields and
|
||
velocities much slower than light, and its assumption about the
|
||
nature of the gravitational force also explains other new GTR
|
||
phenomena involving strong gravitational fields and high velocity.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
strong gravitational fields, for example, the velocity of the
|
||
inherent motion itself (the ether) relative to space can approach the
|
||
velocity of light mediated by the inherent motion, and thus,
|
||
spatiomaterialism implies that a time dilation will occur even in
|
||
free falling clocks, if they have a sufficient high velocity relative
|
||
to the inherent motion in space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Consider,
|
||
for example, a free falling clock that is shot upwards out of a
|
||
gravitational field so that it rises and falls back. At the top of
|
||
its trajectory, the cock will be momentarily at rest relative to
|
||
space, and even though it is not being accelerated against the
|
||
gravitational attraction, it may be suffering a Lorentz time
|
||
dilation. In this case, it would be caused by its constant velocity
|
||
relative to rest in the inherent motion, which is rushing inward
|
||
because of its acceleration by the gravitating body. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
Lorentz time dilation is different from the gravitational time
|
||
dilation discussed above, which is caused by being accelerated in a
|
||
gravitational field. But both factors may be contributing to the red
|
||
shift that observers outside the gravitational field observe in light
|
||
signals sent outward by such objects.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote27anc" href="#sdendnote27sym"><sup>xxvii</sup></a></sup>
|
||
But since the Lorentz time dilation is a second order effect (a
|
||
function of <i>v</i><sup><i>2</i></sup><i>/c</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>),
|
||
while the gravitational time dilation is a first order effect (a
|
||
function of <i>v/c</i>), it doesn’t become significant until the
|
||
emitter’s velocity relative to the inherent motion approaches that
|
||
of light itself in the inherent motion. In strong fields, however,
|
||
the Lorentz time dilation may be a more significant cause of red
|
||
shift than the gravitational time dilation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Indeed,
|
||
material objects in strong gravitational fields with very high
|
||
velocities relative to the inherent motion will suffer all the
|
||
Lorentz distortions: length contraction, mass increase, and
|
||
flattening of electric force fields, as well as time dilation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">I
|
||
have already mentioned that the acceleration of the inherent motion
|
||
can give the inherent motion itself (the ether) a velocity relative
|
||
to space that is as great as the velocity of light outside
|
||
gravitation (that is, in the ether). This is what happens at the
|
||
Schwartzschild radius of a black hole. No light can escape a black
|
||
hole, because everywhere on that spherical surface surrounding the
|
||
black hole the outbound velocity of light mediated by the inherent
|
||
motion is canceled out by the inbound velocity of the inherent motion
|
||
itself. Any such photons would be at rest in space, even though they
|
||
are moving at the velocity of light in the inherent motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Nor could
|
||
anything else escape the black hole, since doing so would require
|
||
moving through the inherent motion faster than the velocity of light.
|
||
That is why it is called an “event horizon”. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Free
|
||
falling material objects cannot even be momentarily at rest at the
|
||
Schwartzschild radius, for the Lorentz distortions caused by their
|
||
velocity relative to the inherent motion at that point would require
|
||
their lengths to be zero, their physical processes to have stopped,
|
||
and their masses to be infinite. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Inside the
|
||
event horizon, light traveling any direction in the inherent motion
|
||
would have an increasing velocity relative to absolute space toward
|
||
the center of the black hole. And any bits of matter being
|
||
accelerated by that acceleration of the inherent motion would move
|
||
and interact with one another as they do outside gravitational fields
|
||
(except for tidal forces, which bring their radial pathways closer
|
||
together), as implied by Einstein’s equivalence principle. But when
|
||
the bits of matter reach the center of the black hole, they must come
|
||
to a stop. Physics does not say what happens then. Material objects
|
||
cannot withstand the forces on them at the center, and presumably,
|
||
they would collapse spatially, making the gravitational forces
|
||
infinite. Thus, the center of a black hole is aptly called a
|
||
“singularity” in absolute space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since
|
||
neither light nor gravitational pulses can propagate outbound from
|
||
beyond the Schwartzschild radius, the only indication of the amount
|
||
of matter that has fallen into the black hole is the size of the
|
||
Schwartzschild radius. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Spatiomaterialism
|
||
can also explain what is happening around rotating black holes.
|
||
Rotating black holes are formed by matter spiraling in, and there is
|
||
an asymmetry about the gravitational field they set up which draws
|
||
bits of matter falling toward the back hole in the direction of its
|
||
rotation. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
reason is that the force of gravitation exerted by matter falling
|
||
into a black hole propagates outward at the velocity of light in the
|
||
inherent motion, and since at the Schwartzschild radius, the inherent
|
||
motion itself is moving inward at the velocity light would have in
|
||
the inherent motion if it were outside gravitational influences, only
|
||
the forces propagated outward just before passing across the radius
|
||
have an effect on the inherent motion outside. And since the matter
|
||
is spiraling past the Schwartzschild radius, it has a greater effect
|
||
behind than in front of its direction of motion. Thus, other bits of
|
||
matter in that region of space feel an attraction that is not
|
||
directly into the black hole, but which pulls it around the black
|
||
hole in the direction of the matter that preceded it. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>E<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLGtr_10" align="right" hspace="5" width="400" height="38" border="0">mpirical
|
||
equivalence of different models of the general theory of relativity
|
||
(GTR). </b></font>This explanation of the old and new gravitational
|
||
phenomena has assumed that nothing exists but two, opposite kinds of
|
||
substances enduring through time. But the capacity of
|
||
spatiomaterialism to explain those phenomena does not necessarily
|
||
mean that it is equivalent to a single model of GTR on the received
|
||
geometrical interpretation (which explains gravitation as a curvature
|
||
in four dimensional spacetime). Thus, it remains to be seen why there
|
||
are infinitely many different, observationally equivalent models of
|
||
GTR for any particular universe, or why “general relativity” (in
|
||
one sense) seems to be true. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Since
|
||
this explanation of gravitation is based on the spatiomaterialist
|
||
explanation of the truth of STR, space is assumed to be a substance,
|
||
and we are liberty to take as our reference frame the inertial frame
|
||
at rest in space outside of gravitational influences where the
|
||
one-way velocity of light is the same both ways in every direction.
|
||
That inertial frame is at rest relative to the inherent motion in
|
||
space, and the inherent motion itself is at rest relative to space
|
||
(in other words, that inertial frame is at rest relative to the
|
||
ether, which, in turn, is at rest relative to space). The times and
|
||
places of events assigned by observers on such an “absolute
|
||
reference frame” would be accurate, because his clocks would not by
|
||
mis-synchronized</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Consider a
|
||
gravitational field imposed by a gravitating body of some kind. It
|
||
will be accelerating the inherent motion (or ether) toward itself
|
||
according to the inverse square law. Of all the reference frames that
|
||
would be accelerated toward the gravitating body, the one with the
|
||
most accurate times and places of events would be the one that is at
|
||
rest relative to the inherent motion itself (or the ether) as it is
|
||
being accelerated toward the center of gravitation. To be sure, such
|
||
a reference frame could not have clocks synchronized everywhere,
|
||
since any large rigid object would be torn apart by the difference in
|
||
forces acting at different points. But if observers on that reference
|
||
frame could use GTR (or this ontological explanation of the
|
||
gravitational force) together with light signals received from other
|
||
objects to figure out where and when events occur throughout the
|
||
gravitational field. That is, they would determine the “simultaneity
|
||
hypersurface in curved spacetime” from their reference frame, and
|
||
since that would correspond to what is really happening to substances
|
||
at that moment as they endure through time, their reference frame can
|
||
be called the “absolute model” for GTR, by analogy to the
|
||
inertial frame of the absolute observer in STR. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The reason
|
||
that there are many different empirically equivalent models for any
|
||
such situation is that there are other reference frames which differ
|
||
from the absolute reference frame only by have a velocity relative to
|
||
the inherent motion itself that is being accelerated inward. They are
|
||
empirically equivalent locally, because they suffer Lorentz
|
||
distortions that mask their velocity relative to the inherent motion.
|
||
And observers on each of them could use GTR together with information
|
||
received from events elsewhere to determine their “simultaneity
|
||
hypersurface in curved spacetime.” They would all disagree with one
|
||
another, like different inertial observers outside gravitation, and
|
||
there would be no way for them to tell by experiment which reference
|
||
frame was the absolute reference frame. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">That is,
|
||
each possible model of GTR is adapted to the trajectory of one of the
|
||
many different particles that could be in inertial motion at any
|
||
point, and their different velocities relative to the inherent motion
|
||
would give them, incipiently, at least, different standards of
|
||
simultaneity (that is, each determines a different “simultaneity
|
||
hypersurface in curved spacetime”). Any pair of such reference
|
||
frames may have a high velocity relative to one another as they pass
|
||
one another at that point, but each would observe Lorentz distortions
|
||
occurring in the other reference frame, and thus, the symmetry
|
||
between them would make it impossible to for them to tell which
|
||
reference frame is at rest relative to the inherent motion in space
|
||
that is being accelerated toward the center of gravitation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
explains why models based on different reference frames are
|
||
empirically equivalent as far as different velocities relative to the
|
||
inherent motion is concerned. But neither can anything known about
|
||
the effects of the gravitational force be used to distinguish one
|
||
reference frame from another. Even of observers on the reference
|
||
frames accepted the spatiomaterialist explanation of the nature of
|
||
gravitation as an acceleration of the inherent motion by the
|
||
gravitating body, that would not single out the absolute reference
|
||
frame from the rest. (Or if the observers think in terms of GTR and
|
||
see gravitation as a “curvature of spacetime” caused by
|
||
gravitating bodies, that does not compromise their empirical
|
||
equivalence.) </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
absolute model cannot be assumed to be the one based on the local
|
||
inertial frame that would result from accelerating all the way in
|
||
from being at rest outside the gravitational field, for the
|
||
gravitating body may itself have a non-zero velocity relative to the
|
||
inherent motion in unstressed space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It might
|
||
seem possible to measure an object’s velocity relative to the
|
||
inherent motion by using the gravitational time dilation of objects
|
||
at rest in the gravitational field to determine their velocity
|
||
relative to the inherent motion. But that will detect only the
|
||
increase in the velocity of the inherent motion as a result of being
|
||
accelerated toward the center of gravity to that point from outside
|
||
the gravitational field, and that will not determine whether the
|
||
gravitational field itself is in motion relative to the inherent
|
||
motion outside gravitation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Or it would
|
||
be possible, in principle, to use the difference between light
|
||
signals and gravitational signals to detect absolute rest, if
|
||
gravitational forces propagated at a different velocity from light.
|
||
But since the force that accelerates the inherent motion in space
|
||
propagates through the inherent motion at the same velocity as light,
|
||
its effects are explained equivalently by each model in the same way
|
||
as light. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
equivalence of inertial frames that Einstein meant by “general
|
||
relativity” can be explained, therefore, by special relativity.
|
||
That is, the empirical equivalence of different models of GTR can be
|
||
explained as the empirical equivalence of local inertial reference
|
||
frames that have different constant velocities relative to the
|
||
accelerating inherent motion. There is no way to determine which of
|
||
their standards of simultaneity is correct, for there is no way to
|
||
detect rest relative to the inherent motion. And none of the
|
||
interactions between space and matter that constitute the force of
|
||
gravity betrays which reference frame is the absolute model. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though
|
||
gravitation just happens to work in such a way that absolute rest
|
||
relative to the inherent motion cannot be detected, the fact that it
|
||
works that way could explain why Einstein was able to deduce his law
|
||
describing the unexpected effects of gravitation from the assumption
|
||
that all different local inertial frames are equivalent, or “general”
|
||
relativity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
spatiomaterialist explanation of gravitation has been presented as an
|
||
ontological explanation of the truth of Einstein’s general theory
|
||
of relativity. Since what is crucial to such an ontological
|
||
explanation is identifying the aspects of the substances constituting
|
||
the world to which the theory corresponds, I have presented only a
|
||
qualitative argument. I have shown how GTR could be true, even if
|
||
nothing existed but substances enduring through time, and every
|
||
possible photon has a determinate location and velocity in absolute
|
||
space at each moment as it is present (because the inherent motion
|
||
itself is accelerated and, thus, moving through space). Though I have
|
||
said enough about the quantitative factors to make clear how it would
|
||
predict the same quantitatively precise measurements, I have not
|
||
shown mathematically that it is equivalent.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">That
|
||
is an exercise I leave up to mathematically inclined readers. It
|
||
affords an opportunity to refute ontological philosophy, for if it
|
||
can be shown that there is no way that the acceleration of the
|
||
inherent motion in space can yield the quantitatively correct
|
||
predictions for all the relevant phenomena, we will have defaulted on
|
||
the mortgage we took out to use spatiomaterialism as the foundation
|
||
for the necessary truths of ontological philosophy, and the project
|
||
will have failed. I see not reason to belief that that can be done.
|
||
But like any basically empirical argument, ontological philosophy is
|
||
vulnerable to empirical falsification, and thus, it must stand up to
|
||
such challenges. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">We
|
||
can also see, at this point, why philosophers of science have not
|
||
recognized the superiority of substantivalism about space to
|
||
substantivalism about their spacetime. Instead of inferring to the
|
||
best ontological explanation of everything in nature, they have let
|
||
their ontology be determined by realism about the highly mathematical
|
||
theories that physics has accepted as the best efficient-cause
|
||
explanation of what happens in nature. Philosophers of spacetime
|
||
simply assume that every theory about space and time, including
|
||
Newton’s (and, thus, spatiomaterialism), can be represented as just
|
||
another variety of spacetime theory using differential geometry.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote28anc" href="#sdendnote28sym"><sup>xxviii</sup></a></sup>
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
spatiomaterialism offers, however, is a different kind of model of
|
||
GTR. It explains ontologically why Einstein’s field equations are
|
||
true by showing how gravitational phenomena can be constituted by
|
||
space and matter as substances that exist only at the present moment.
|
||
To treat spatiomaterialism as the belief in a “simultaneity
|
||
hypersurface in a four dimensional spacetime manifold” is to
|
||
abstract from such basic ontological issues as the nature of
|
||
existence and time and to judge these theories only as
|
||
efficient-cause explanations, that is, by their predictions of
|
||
precise measurements.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote29anc" href="#sdendnote29sym"><sup>xxix</sup></a></sup>
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">And
|
||
when we judge all these theories by their capacity, as ontological
|
||
theories, to account for <i>everything </i>observable about the
|
||
world, including real change, the empirical superiority of an
|
||
ontology of enduring substances is obvious, as we have seen, because
|
||
of its explanation of the nature of time and existence.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Spacetime,
|
||
whether curved or flat, cannot explain how the present is different
|
||
from the past and the future, because spacetime cannot be a substance
|
||
enduring through time as long as time is part of its structure. Thus,
|
||
neither can it explain real change, because nothing ever comes into
|
||
existence as time passes nor goes out of existence. (And as we have
|
||
seen, attempts to avoid falsification by our experience of real
|
||
change by adding subjective substances to the ontology makes it more
|
||
complex encounters problems relating eternal and enduring substances
|
||
as a single world, and is in any case <i>ad hoc</i>.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Spatiomaterialism
|
||
differs ontologically from Einstein’s GTR in just the way required
|
||
to explain real change. Though it explains gravitation in much the
|
||
way Einstein proposed — as an effect of the container of material
|
||
objects on the path they follow — it replaces curved spacetime with
|
||
an acceleration of the inherent motion itself. Since that is nothing
|
||
but an aspect of space and matter as substances enduring through
|
||
time, given how they are related, it explain why the present is
|
||
different from the past and the future and “real change” is
|
||
ontologically possible. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>Q<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_01" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="69" border="0">uantum
|
||
Mechanics.</b></font> Quantum mechanics is the other great revolution
|
||
in contemporary physics. Classical physicists would have admitted
|
||
that the existence of ordinary material objects is a phenomenon that
|
||
still needed an explanation, and as it turns out, that explanation
|
||
came with the quantum revolution. Not only does quantum mechanics
|
||
describe the electromagnetic forces responsible for the structure of
|
||
all ordinary objects down to molecules and atoms, but the mathematics
|
||
that is now used (in a gauge field theory called "quantum
|
||
electrodynamics") is the model for explaining even the
|
||
short-range forces (the strong and the weak forces) which responsible
|
||
for the nucleus and deeper structure of material objects. The issues
|
||
involved in explaining the truth of quantum mechanics is taken up in
|
||
this chapter, and the two short-range forces, along with the basic
|
||
particles of physics, will be explained in the next. The challenge
|
||
posed by quantum mechanics and what is at stake in explaining its
|
||
truth ontologically are discussed in the first section, and the rest
|
||
of the chapter suggests one way, at least, in which its truth can be
|
||
explained by spatiomaterialism. But at the outset, it should be
|
||
noticed that spatiomaterialism already provides an explanation of how
|
||
those forces are related to gravitation. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">One
|
||
of the greatest current mysteries of contemporary physics concerns
|
||
the relationship between the force of gravity and the other three
|
||
basic forces of nature. The problem is that the electromagnetic force
|
||
and the two short range forces are explained by the exchange of a
|
||
distinctive kind of particle (the gauge boson, such as the photon, in
|
||
the case of electromagnetism), and the general theory of relativity
|
||
does not lend itself to representation as a gauge field theory. The
|
||
most promising way to represent gravitation as the exchange of such
|
||
gauge bosons (called “gravitons” in the case of gravitation)
|
||
would incorporate all four basic forces and the objects on which they
|
||
act. But this so-called “superstring theory” requires the
|
||
postulation of ten or more dimensions to space, and it seems to be
|
||
completely immune from possible empirical falsification. There is
|
||
nothing to recommend it but the mathematical uniformity in the
|
||
representation of all four basic forces of nature, and as we have
|
||
seen exclusive reliance on mathematics does not necessarily lead to
|
||
the best explanation. . </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Spatiomaterialism
|
||
offers a solution to this problem, if quantum electrodynamics and the
|
||
two short range forces are explained as interactions mediated by the
|
||
inherent motion in space (that is, space as the "ether"),
|
||
as I have been assuming, because this ontological explanation of
|
||
relativity theory would also explain how the other three forces are
|
||
related to gravitation. Gravitation is not a gauge theory, because
|
||
the gravitational force acts on the inherent motion itself, that is,
|
||
on space, not on bits of matter directly. It is by changing the
|
||
“medium” (or "ether" as a condition of space) in which
|
||
gauge particles are exchanged that gravitation accelerates bits of
|
||
matter. It is not necessary for centers of matter accumulation to
|
||
exchange gravitons with individual bits of matter in the region to
|
||
accelerate them. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What makes
|
||
the problem of relating gravitation and the other forces seem so
|
||
intractable is the assumption that it requires the discovery of a law
|
||
of nature from which Einstein’s general theory of relativity as
|
||
well as the gauge forces can all be derived. The discovery of a basic
|
||
law covering all the basic kinds of interactions among bits of matter
|
||
has long been the so-called “holy grail” of physics, and that is
|
||
the assumption that has led to attempts to formulate a gauge theory
|
||
of gravitation. It seemed that such a basic law of physics could be
|
||
discovered only if gravitation could be represented mathematically in
|
||
the same way as the other forces. That is the goal of superstring
|
||
theory. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Spatiomaterialism
|
||
would solve this problem <i>ontologically, </i>rather than
|
||
mathematically. The solution does not require the discovery of a new
|
||
law of nature from which all the other laws follow, but only an
|
||
ontological explanation of the truth of the laws that have already
|
||
been discovered, for that reveals how gravitation is related to the
|
||
other three forces. We have seen how the truth of general relativity
|
||
can be explained ontologically, and thus, if spatiomaterialism can
|
||
explain the truth of the other basic forces of nature in terms of the
|
||
inherent motion in space, there is an ontological explanation of the
|
||
relationship between the two kinds of forces. It is the recognition
|
||
of the inherent motion (or "ether") as an aspect of the
|
||
essential nature of space that makes this possible. By contrast, the
|
||
gauge field theories are, in effect, the attempt to represent space
|
||
as nothing but the forces by which particles interact. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
explanation is ontological, what makes the problem of reconciling
|
||
gravitation and the other forces of nature seem so intractable is,
|
||
once again, the empirical method of physics, that is, the method of
|
||
inferring to the best <i>efficient-cause explanations </i>of what
|
||
happens in nature (and letting ontology be determined by realism
|
||
about its theories). It was inevitable that physics would eventually
|
||
find itself in this predicament, because physics first became a
|
||
science by taking advantage of the power of mathematics to describe
|
||
regularities about change. By insisting on mathematical theories that
|
||
make surprising, quantitatively precise predictions of measurements,
|
||
physics was able to discover the most abstruse facts about how bits
|
||
of matter move and interact with one another. That is what enabled
|
||
modern physics to go beyond the ancient atomists in understanding the
|
||
nature of the elementary objects. But despite the acuity of its
|
||
vision of regularities, physics was blind to a more basic aspect of
|
||
the world. It failed to recognize that the job of science is not just
|
||
to describe the regularities by which it is possible to predict and
|
||
control what happens in the world, but also to describe the basic
|
||
substances that constitute those regularities (not just the particles
|
||
to which they refer, but all the substances that cause them
|
||
ontologically). It comes from a failure to recognize that ontology
|
||
can be explanatory in its own right and that ontological-cause
|
||
explanations are a deeper kind of explanation from efficient-cause
|
||
explanations, that is, from the same oversight that led to the
|
||
Einsteinian revolution in the first place. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>T<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAF4AAAARCAMAAABjAuvlAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpGPjA4MSYqJR0cGBMNDAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD2Ty12AAAA60lEQVR4nN3UQW7EIAwFUBsMMQLj6f0v2x8aZprZlEZKF7UUATZ6KCYKfdwadDtPt8X/4KNqwmCnYonvmYu8WpKqWJ6KJu+Za3z0fc5YJquYZTP9xidrmIWstmElrWnA7mrKa7yWuUzUMgQew8GnxsGZxCN7oOCBOwp4ii7yc9/eJ8yDmuuTb1XVhcRGZitjiK5af7yYLz63Ex88jVMO3jYRvM/BHwXpSMY1nh97b9PkpRPVF684nMPkk43G8AP2Ik+xdZsY3NqtvXgq3fqTR7GiVRSRXOz9rwKfC254LS7wbj2v7v2LP+ad8QlQFiQatKUN+gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" name="TtsOtkCLQm_02" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="36" border="0">he
|
||
challenge of quantum mechanics. </b></font>Like the Einsteinian
|
||
revolution, quantum mechanics might also be thought to pose a
|
||
challenge for ontological philosophy. The quantum revolution has also
|
||
overthrown assumptions of classical physics about the nature of the
|
||
world, and if spatiomaterialism were unable to explain ontologically
|
||
why the laws of quantum mechanics are true, physics might provides a
|
||
reason for denying that ontological philosophy can use
|
||
spatiomaterialism as the foundation for doing philosophy in a new
|
||
way, despite its explanation of relativity theory. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
quantum revolution does not, however, challenge spatiomaterialism in
|
||
the same, direct way as relativity. Quantum mechanics has not led to
|
||
any consensus among physicists about the nature of what exists that
|
||
is incompatible with spatiomaterialism. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
Einsteinian revolution is generally assumed to be the discovery of
|
||
something that directly contradicts spatiomaterialism. In
|
||
contemporary physics, absolute space and absolute time have
|
||
explicitly been replaced by spacetime. But absolute space and time
|
||
are entailed by the assumption that space and matter are substances
|
||
enduring though time. Thus, in order to defend the use of
|
||
spatiomaterialism as the foundation for this philosophical argument,
|
||
I had to show that what Einstein’s two theories imply about the
|
||
world could be explained on the assumption that space and time are
|
||
absolute. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The quantum
|
||
revolution has not led to ontological beliefs that directly
|
||
contradict spatiomaterialism. This is partly because there is no
|
||
consensus among physicists concerning what quantum mechanics implies
|
||
about the nature of what exists. There is no dispute about the laws
|
||
themselves; they are among the most precise and highly confirmed in
|
||
physics. But scientific realism about quantum mechanics does lead to
|
||
general agreement in ontological beliefs. There are so many disputes
|
||
about the kinds of entities that are required for the laws of quantum
|
||
mechanics to be true and they are so intractable that most physicists
|
||
beat a hasty retreat to their empirical method and take cover by
|
||
simply pointing out that its laws are the best way of predicting and
|
||
controlling the relevant phenomena. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
there are ontological interpretations of quantum mechanics that are
|
||
incompatible with spatiomaterialism. For example, some philosophers
|
||
take measurements in quantum mechanics (involving the so-called
|
||
“collapse of the wavefunction”) to be an event that depends on a
|
||
conscious mind coming to know something about the world, and that is
|
||
to assume that mind is a fundamentally different kind of substance
|
||
from matter, which is is a form of immaterialism that
|
||
spatiomaterialism rejects. Another interpretation, called the “many
|
||
worlds view,” interprets measurement in quantum mechanics (again,
|
||
the collapse of the wavefunction) to be the occasion of the universe
|
||
splitting into different universes in which each of the different
|
||
possible outcomes of each measurement are realized, which is not
|
||
compatible with the world being constituted by substances. However,
|
||
the possibility of such views is hardly an objection to
|
||
spatiomaterialism, as long as it is possible to give an ontological
|
||
interpretation of quantum mechanics that is compatible with
|
||
spatiomaterialism. Thus, the issue is whether <i>all </i>possible
|
||
ontological interpretations are incompatible with spatiomaterialism.
|
||
It was the universal assumption that Einsteinian relativity is
|
||
incompatible with space being absolute that forced us to take out a
|
||
mortgage on spatiomaterialism, promising to show how it can explain
|
||
Einstein’s two relativity theories ontologically as a condition of
|
||
using it as the foundation for ontological philosophy. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
be sure quantum mechanics did overthrow the <i>classical </i>view of
|
||
the nature of matter. But that does not necessarily challenge
|
||
spatiomaterialism, because spatiomaterialism is no more committed to
|
||
the classical view of matter than it is to the classical view of
|
||
space. The relevant issue is whether it is <i>possible </i>to explain
|
||
the truth of the laws of quantum mechanics by making assumptions
|
||
about the nature of matter (and space) that are consistent with
|
||
spatiomaterialism. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Materialism
|
||
in general is not generally thought to be what is refuted by quantum
|
||
mechanics. On the contrary, many physicists who are quite confident
|
||
of the truth of quantum mechanics would consider themselves
|
||
“materialists” in the broad sense in which that term is used to
|
||
classify ontological positions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
question is what more specific essential nature material substances
|
||
must have in order for quantum mechanics to be true. It is clear that
|
||
the regularities described by quantum mechanics cannot be explained
|
||
ontologically by the kinds of material objects and light waves
|
||
recognized by classical physics. But spatiomaterialism does not have
|
||
to defend that view of matter. Indeed, as we have seen, its
|
||
explanation of why the laws of classical physics are true (insofar as
|
||
they are true) depends on assumptions about the nature of matter that
|
||
are not part of classical physics. I assumed, for example, that
|
||
kinetic energy is a form of matter that exists in addition to the
|
||
rest masses of material objects, and that potential energy is as form
|
||
of matter (force field matter) that is already counted in the rest
|
||
masses of the objects exerting the forces. And in explaining the
|
||
truth of the special and general theories of relativity, I have made
|
||
further non-classical assumptions about the nature of the world —
|
||
for example, that there is an inherent motion in space and that it
|
||
can itself be accelerated and have a velocity relative to space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
is not to say that there is nothing puzzling about quantum mechanics.
|
||
There are two, basically different ways that it might seem to
|
||
challenge spatiomaterialism directly. One has to do with a long
|
||
recognized indeterminacy about its predictions, and the other is a
|
||
more recently discovered problem about action at a distance (deriving
|
||
from Bell’s theorem). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><b>Indeterminism.</b>
|
||
The laws of quantum mechanics do not describe nature as having
|
||
deterministic causal connections among states of affairs. Those laws
|
||
often imply only that, given everything that can be known about a
|
||
given situation, any of a number of different states might follow (or
|
||
precede) it. The most that can be done is to assign a probability to
|
||
each of those possible outcomes.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is
|
||
fundamentally different from classical physics, for its laws were
|
||
deterministic. As Laplace pointed out in the eighteenth century, if
|
||
the basic laws of classical physics are true, then given a complete
|
||
description of the current situation (even the state of whole
|
||
universe), it would be possible, in principle, to predict any future
|
||
state (or even any earlier state). The state of the universe (or any
|
||
closed system) at any one moment determines its state at every other
|
||
moment. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Even in
|
||
very limited situations, the laws of quantum mechanics do not usually
|
||
support such deterministic predictions. Given a complete quantum
|
||
mechanical description of a situation, there is a range of possible
|
||
events that can happen (such as what measurements will reveal), and
|
||
there is no way of saying which one it will be (though it is possible
|
||
to assign probabilities to the alternatives). Thus, physics no longer
|
||
assumes that complete knowledge of the current state of the universe
|
||
would make it possible to predict what would happen.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This lack
|
||
of precise predictability comes from the nature of the Schrödinger
|
||
equation. Its solution for a given situation is a wavefunction which
|
||
is a complete quantum description of that situation (in
|
||
pre-relativistic quantum mechanics). It describes precisely how the
|
||
quantum system evolves as time passes, just like a wavefunction in
|
||
classical physics. But the Schrödinger wavefunction is not
|
||
classical, because it involves complex numbers (containing <i>i</i>,
|
||
or the square root of minus one), and the space in which the wave is
|
||
contained is a “configuration space,” which is a space with three
|
||
times as many dimensions as there are particles involved in the
|
||
situation being described. There is no obvious way to relate such a
|
||
wavefunction to the natural world. The standard interpretation of the
|
||
Schrödinger wavefunction takes the square of the amplitude of the
|
||
wavefunction (for a single particle) in any small region of space to
|
||
represent the <i>probability </i>of finding the particle at that
|
||
location. (And there are mathematical operators on the wavefunction
|
||
that predict measurements, but they cannot predict precisely both of
|
||
any pair of complementary variables, such as the position and
|
||
momentum of an electron.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
limitation on precise predictions of what will happen is summed up in
|
||
the famous Heisenberg uncertainty principle. This principle can be
|
||
taken as reflecting either an indeterminism about the world itself or
|
||
as merely an incompleteness in what can be known about it. Though in
|
||
either case, it is a limitation in principle, rather than practice, a
|
||
mere incompleteness in our possible knowledge about the world would
|
||
not contradict spatiomaterialism. Substances enduring through time
|
||
could still constitute causal connections, even if some aspects of
|
||
those substances cannot be measured precisely. Furthermore, even if
|
||
this uncertainty did derive from an indeterminism in the nature of
|
||
what happens independently of how it is known, it would not
|
||
necessarily be incompatible with spatiomaterialism. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Indeterminism
|
||
would contradict spatiomaterialism if it was incompatible with the
|
||
world being constituted by substances enduring through time. Such an
|
||
extreme indeterminism would be true, if the predictions supported by
|
||
quantum mechanics corresponded to <i>all </i>the causal connections
|
||
that there are between the properties that hold at one moment and the
|
||
those that hold at the next. To hold that what is unpredictable is
|
||
not determined at all is incompatible with any explanation of the
|
||
world as constituted by substances enduring though time, because it
|
||
is to assume, in effect, that something comes from nothing. What is
|
||
unpredictable about the next moment would not depend in any way on
|
||
what existed at the previous moment, and since it would have to come
|
||
from nothing at all, extreme indeterminism would contradict the
|
||
assumption that the world (and all its aspects) are constituted by
|
||
substances enduring through time. Though this does not bother
|
||
epistemologically minded naturalists, it would be a death blow to
|
||
ontological naturalism.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">A less
|
||
extreme form of indeterminism is compatible with an ontological
|
||
explanation of the natural world, though it is still hard to swallow.
|
||
Indeterminism might hold that what is unpredictable according to the
|
||
Heisenberg principle is a result of an inherent randomness in the
|
||
essential nature of the matter making up the world. This would be
|
||
more than a mere limitation in what <i>we </i>can know about the
|
||
determining conditions, because it also would be a limitation in what
|
||
even God could know. There would be no need to believe that something
|
||
comes from nothing, because what exists at the next moment would be
|
||
constituted by the same substances that constituted the world at the
|
||
previous moment. But here would be no aspect of the nature of those
|
||
substances at the previous moment that determines which of certain
|
||
aspects it will have the next moment, because the randomness would be
|
||
an aspect of the essential nature of the kind of matter that
|
||
constitutes the world. The randomness would be a temporally complex
|
||
aspect of the essential nature of matter, for it would make the
|
||
connections between properties that substances have at different
|
||
moments random. It would be as if matter itself contained a
|
||
randomness generator that even God could not use to predict what will
|
||
happen (though God would presumably still know the future, since he
|
||
is the creator of all the moments of the world). Though such a view
|
||
about the nature of matter would be consistent with
|
||
spatiomaterialism, it would not be as good as one that could give a
|
||
genuine ontological explanation of what happens, that is, which
|
||
explains what happens as aspects of the world that follow from the
|
||
natures of the basic substances as they endure through time
|
||
constituting the world. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However,
|
||
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle does not preclude a genuine
|
||
ontological explanation of what is unpredictable. To hold that
|
||
quantum uncertainty is merely a limitation in what beings like us,
|
||
who are parts of the world, can know about the world is to hold that
|
||
what happens does have a cause, but that we cannot know precisely
|
||
what it is. This is to interpret the probabilistic nature of quantum
|
||
mechanics as an <i>incompleteness</i> in our knowledge, rather than
|
||
as <i>indeterminism</i> about the world. It assumes that there is
|
||
some “hidden variable” that is actually determining what happens,
|
||
though for some reason, that variable cannot be measured. That is not
|
||
incompatible with spatiomaterialism, because the reason for the
|
||
Heisenberg uncertainty could be that the interactions required for
|
||
scientists, as material objects in space, to know about particular
|
||
conditions in the world so disturb the world that they alter the
|
||
conditions being known. That limitation must, of course, be caused by
|
||
the basic nature of those interactions. But that does not mean that
|
||
it is impossible to identify the nature of the hidden variable. It
|
||
means only that its quantity cannot be measured accurately in any
|
||
particular case. And having inferred to spatiomaterialism as the best
|
||
ontological explanation of the world, we may be in a better position
|
||
to identify the nature of the hidden variable that makes quantum
|
||
mechanics incomplete. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><b>Bell’s
|
||
theorem.</b> Though the traditional puzzles about the apparent
|
||
indeterminism of quantum mechanics do not necessarily contradict
|
||
spatiomaterialism, there is a more recently discovered implication of
|
||
quantum mechanics that may. It occurs when particles separate from
|
||
one another in a way that gives them opposite orientations of a
|
||
quantum property called “spin.” John Bell showed that when such
|
||
particles move away from one another in opposite directions, it is
|
||
possible for a measurement made of one particle at one location to
|
||
predict (probabilistically) measurements that are made at another
|
||
location more accurately than would be possible if the particles had
|
||
the properties being measured from the time they parted from one
|
||
another. These “Bell correlations,” as I will call them, seem to
|
||
imply that spin is not a property that the particles carry with them
|
||
locally, but one that depends on the entire system, including both
|
||
particles rushing away from each other. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
suggests according to a standard interpretation of quantum mechanics
|
||
that the measurement of one particle affects the other particle (that
|
||
is, that such effects are part of what is called the “collapse of
|
||
the wavefunction”). But if measurement does have such effects, then
|
||
it would have to be able to have its effect faster than the velocity
|
||
of light, and that seems to contradict the principle of local action.
|
||
I have assumed that what happens in one part of space cannot affect
|
||
what happens elsewhere any faster than the velocity of light, for
|
||
that velocity is determined by the inherent motion in space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There is,
|
||
however, something suspicious about the Bell correlations. There is
|
||
no other evidence of faster than light effects in nature.
|
||
Furthermore, it has been shown that, whatever is going on, Bell
|
||
correlations are the kind of signal that can be used to communicate
|
||
information. They are peculiarly lacking in further consequences.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It is not
|
||
clear, therefore, that this departure of quantum mechanics from
|
||
Bell’s theorem (about what local action entails) depends on one
|
||
measurement affecting the other measurement causally. However,
|
||
worries about the possibility of action at a distance will probably
|
||
not be put to rest completely unless it is explained how it is
|
||
possible for quantum mechanics to make such predictions. Thus, there
|
||
something that needs explaining. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is, therefore, reason to explore the ontological explanations of
|
||
quantum mechanics that are opened up by spatiomaterialism. We would
|
||
be justified in using spatiomaterialism as the foundation for
|
||
ontological philosophy without explaining why quantum mechanics is
|
||
true. But if its explanation of the aspects of the natural world to
|
||
which the equations of quantum mechanics correspond did help clear up
|
||
the quantum puzzles, there would be an additional reason for
|
||
believing that spatiomaterialism is true.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the first section, I will review the traditional puzzles about the
|
||
nature of matter posed by quantum mechanics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the second section, I will introduce several new assumptions about
|
||
the nature of space and matter and show how they would enable
|
||
spatiomaterialism to explain the forms of matter that were assumed in
|
||
explaining the truth of the laws of classical physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
third section will return to the quantum puzzles and show how the
|
||
proposed ontological assumptions would explain those puzzling
|
||
phenomena ontologically, including a response to the challenge that
|
||
seems to be posed for spatiomaterialism by the more recent discovery
|
||
of Bell correlations. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This more
|
||
detailed ontological theory about the nature of matter is offered in
|
||
a speculative vein. It differs from the ontological explanation of
|
||
relativity theory, because no such explanation must be given in order
|
||
to use spatiomaterialism for philosophical purposes. And it differs
|
||
from the arguments to come about global regularities, because they
|
||
attempt to prove that certain proposition are ontologically necessary
|
||
truths. The reason that this ontological explanation of quantum
|
||
mechanics is not ontologically necessary is that there may be other
|
||
ontological explanations of quantum mechanics that are also
|
||
consistent with spatiomaterialism (and what is says about relativity
|
||
theory). Thus, the most I would claim to show is that some such
|
||
ontological explanation is true. It may not be this one, but it will
|
||
be clear, I believe, that there is some way of explaining the truth
|
||
of quantum mechanics on a spatiomaterialist foundation. And since
|
||
speculation is valuable as a way of exploring the possibilities, this
|
||
particular version of spatiomaterialism may contribute to the
|
||
discovery of the more complete truth about the natural world. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
explanation of quantum mechanics is, like its explanation of
|
||
relativity theory, ontological, rather than mathematical. I will be
|
||
trying to show how the new phenomena predicted by quantum mechanics
|
||
can be constituted by space and matter as substances enduring through
|
||
time, not that there is a better efficient-cause explanation of what
|
||
happens. It does not claim to make any new predictions of what
|
||
happens in the world.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">Though
|
||
I will give reasons for believing that this ontological explanation
|
||
is quantitatively accurate (or can be made so), I will not try to
|
||
show in detail how the formidable mathematical formalism of quantum
|
||
mechanics relates to the world. Such a mathematical argument would
|
||
take us too far afield. And in any case, it has already been done by
|
||
David Bohm. (See </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Bohm"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Bohm</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
1993, with Basil J. Hiley.) That is, the ontology I will be proposing
|
||
is a variation on the ontology that Bohm shows to correspond to the
|
||
Schrödinger equation, the basic equation of quantum mechanics, and
|
||
thus, if Bohm’s ontology is a possible explanation of the truth of
|
||
quantum mechanics, then so is this one. </span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">There
|
||
are many good accounts of quantum mechanics, but a reasonably
|
||
accessible one that I have recently found useful is Jim </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Bohm"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Baggott's</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><i>The
|
||
Meaning of Quantum Theory. </i></span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
most cases, it will be clear that the kinds of assumptions I will be
|
||
making can be refined to made them quantitatively adequate. This is
|
||
much the same attitude I took in explaining ontologically the truth
|
||
of general relativity, except that in the case of quantum mechanics,
|
||
I also leave open the choice between various more detailed,
|
||
alternative ontological assumptions. Thus, in order to show that it
|
||
is not possible to explain the truth of quantum mechanics
|
||
ontologically in this way, it would be necessary to show that none of
|
||
these possibilities can be quantitatively adequate for the whole
|
||
range of quantum phenomena. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Nor
|
||
do I claim that the ontological theory being presented here is the
|
||
best spatiomaterialist explanation of quantum mechanics, only that it
|
||
(or one much like it) is possible in the sense of accounting for all
|
||
the relevant phenomena. There may be ways in which space and matter
|
||
existing together as a world can explain the truth of quantum
|
||
mechanics more simply. That would be interesting and preferable. But
|
||
it is not the crucial point, because the possibility of such an
|
||
ontological explanation is all that is relevant to rest of
|
||
ontological philosophy. And seeing how it is possible is the first
|
||
step toward discovering the best such theory.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>Q<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_03" align="right" width="200" height="38" border="0"><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image13" align="right" hspace="5" width="149" height="22" border="0">uantum
|
||
puzzles.</b></font> Of the various quantum puzzles, the most basic is
|
||
probably wave-particle duality. The atom itself is, however, the most
|
||
important, puzzling consequence for the ordinary world. The
|
||
traditional way of summing up what is most puzzling about quantum
|
||
mechanics is the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, but recently the
|
||
most discussed is called “Bell’s inequality.” All of them are
|
||
described here as a way of introducing quantum mechanics as it is
|
||
currently understood, and after explaining the spatiomaterialist
|
||
theory of quantum matter, I will show how they can be solved. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">W<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_04" align="right" hspace="5" width="225" height="30" border="0">ave-particle
|
||
duality. </font>According to Bohr, the basic puzzle of quantum
|
||
mechanics is the dual nature of the basic entities it describes. They
|
||
all appear to be like both particles and like waves. What classical
|
||
physics took to be waves turn out to have a particle-like nature as
|
||
well, and what classical physics took to be particles turn out to
|
||
have a wave-like nature as well. Bohr thought that both appearances
|
||
of the underlying reality are due in part to our measuring apparatus
|
||
and the classical expectations on which they are constructed. But
|
||
wave-like and particle-like natures are apparently incompatible, and
|
||
since both of these classical conceptions of reality are needed to
|
||
make all of the possible predictions, he called the basic puzzle of
|
||
quantum mechanics “complementarity.” Bohr was the originator of
|
||
the so-called "Copenhagen interpretation" of quantum
|
||
mechanics, which holds that the reality behind these complementary
|
||
phenomena is incomprehensible to us.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>The
|
||
particle-like nature of electromagnetic waves. </b></i>Light has long
|
||
since been thought to have wave-like nature in classical physics.
|
||
Early in the nineteenth century, Thomas Young showed that light
|
||
passing through two narrow, closely spaced holes (or slits) produces
|
||
a pattern of light and dark lines on the screen that finally
|
||
intercepts them, and he explained it by the wavelike nature of light.
|
||
The places on the screen where the waves emerging from each slit
|
||
interfere constructively are bright, while the places where they
|
||
interfere destructively are dark. When one slit is blocked, the
|
||
interference pattern disappears.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img 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" name="Interference" align="bottom" width="372" height="290" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Diffraction
|
||
phenomena also indicate the wave like nature of light. Light rays
|
||
passing through a hole that approximates its wavelength will be
|
||
spread out as it leaves the hole, with the range of the spread
|
||
varying inversely with the size of the hole. When the hole is large,
|
||
the light hitting the distant screen is like a point, but when the
|
||
hole is small, the diffraction is great. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Moreover,
|
||
as we have seen, light had been explained by Maxwell as the wavelike
|
||
coupling of the electric and magnetic forces described by his
|
||
equations. Indeed, it enabled him to predict the velocity of light.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
particle-like nature of light was the first of the discoveries that
|
||
eventually culminated in quantum mechanics. Instead of propagating
|
||
like a wave in an elastic medium, as the classical model assumed, it
|
||
became clear that light is actually made up of distinct particles,
|
||
which are now called “photons”. This particle-like nature means
|
||
that the energy and momentum carried by light do not combine
|
||
continuously, as they do in ordinary waves, but come in separate
|
||
units, called “quanta”. The size of the quantum of light is now
|
||
represented by Planck’s constant, <i>h</i>, which is part of every
|
||
new equation used in quantum mechanics. It appears in the new
|
||
equations for the energy and momentum of light. The energy, <i>E</i>,
|
||
is given by <i>E = hf </i>(where <i>E </i>is energy, <i>f
|
||
</i>is frequency), and the momentum, <i>p</i>, is given by <i>p = h/</i>
|
||
(where <i>p </i>is momentum, and is the wavelength). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Max Planck
|
||
first discovered the particle-like nature of light in 1900, though he
|
||
did not fully understand what he was on to. He discovered the
|
||
constant named after him by tinkering with a classical equation for
|
||
calculating the amount of energy given off at each frequency in
|
||
so-called blackbody radiation, that is, a hot body in which no
|
||
frequency of light should be favored. (It is best approximated by a
|
||
box with mirrored interior walls in which light of all possible
|
||
wavelengths for a box with certain temperature are being reflected
|
||
back and forth.) The classical equation assumed that the frequencies
|
||
of light being given off varied continuously from the lowest to the
|
||
highest, with the peak intensity depending on the temperature. That
|
||
assumption worked well enough for the low frequencies, but at high
|
||
frequencies, it led to the conclusion that the total energy given off
|
||
should be infinite. This absurdity was called the “ultraviolet
|
||
catastrophe.” Planck discovered a formula that avoided the
|
||
catastrophe and predicted the total quantity of energy given off at
|
||
each frequency by introducing a constant, <i>h</i>, into the formula
|
||
which restricted the frequencies of light. That is the source of the
|
||
equation for the energy of light: <i>E = hf.</i> (Though
|
||
its meaning is still obscure, it can, perhaps, be seen as requiring
|
||
the photons to differ from one another by that constant amount.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Albert
|
||
Einstein made it clearer that what Planck had discovered was the
|
||
particle-like nature of light by using Planck’s constant is his own
|
||
explanation of the photoelectric effect (in 1905, the same year that
|
||
he published his special theory of relativity). It had been known
|
||
that light being intercepted by material objects could release
|
||
electrons from the material objects, but it was found that the
|
||
release of electrons did not depend on the total energy of the light
|
||
waves (the intensity of the light), as one would expect on the wave
|
||
hypothesis. It depends on the frequency of the light. Below a certain
|
||
frequency, no electrons are released, regardless how intense the
|
||
light may be at that frequency. Whereas light with a higher frequency
|
||
would release electrons even though the intensity was much less.
|
||
Einstein showed that the release of the electrons depended on the
|
||
absorption of single photons, each of whose energy depended on
|
||
Planck’s constant: <i>E = hf.</i></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Much later
|
||
(in 1923), Arthur Compton showed that photons also have a momentum
|
||
like particles. He shot high energy photons (x rays) at electrons and
|
||
used arguments based on the conservation of momentum and energy to
|
||
predict correctly the amount by which their energies would be changed
|
||
by such scattering. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
particle-like nature of the light does not change its wave-like
|
||
properties. Indeed, it turns out that interference effects still
|
||
occur when light is sent through the two-slit apparatus one photon at
|
||
a time. Over time, they still accumulate in fringes on the distant
|
||
wall. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>The
|
||
wave-like nature of particles with rest mass. </b></i>Material
|
||
objects are understood in classical physics as having definite
|
||
locations in space at each moment and to follow definite trajectories
|
||
as they move from one place to another. But the behavior of objects
|
||
with rest mass on the smallest scale is peculiar in the opposite way
|
||
from photons, according to quantum theory. Just as light waves have a
|
||
particle-like nature, so material objects have a wave-like nature. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
wave-like nature of particles with rest mass was predicted in 1923 by
|
||
de Broglie. What Einstein’s special theory of relativity implies
|
||
about the relativistic increase in mass leads to the conclusion that
|
||
the energy of a photon is equal to the product of its momentum and
|
||
the velocity of light, or <i>E = pc.</i> Since the velocity
|
||
of light is equal to the product of the frequency and wavelength, or
|
||
<i>c = f</i>it follows that the momentum of a
|
||
photon is <i>p = h/</i>De Broglie went on to
|
||
suggest that the same relationship holds of particles with kinetic
|
||
energy. He argued that particles, such as electrons, protons and
|
||
material objects with mass generally would also have a wave length
|
||
that varied inversely with their momentum in the same way. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Interference
|
||
and diffraction phenomena were the kind of empirical evidence that
|
||
was taken as showing that light has a wave-like nature, and soon
|
||
after de Broglie’s prediction, it was shown that the electrons
|
||
forced to pass through very small holes do exhibit diffraction, that
|
||
is, the smaller the hole, the more they spread out. Eventually, even
|
||
interference phenomena were demonstrated with electrons. When
|
||
electrons moving at a certain velocity are projected through narrow,
|
||
closely spaced, parallel slits at a screen (where the distance
|
||
between the slits approximates their de Broglie wave length), they
|
||
also form an interference pattern on the far wall, as if they were
|
||
waves. Even when the electrons were sent one at a time, they tended
|
||
to land on the distant screen only along certain fringes, leaving
|
||
lines between them without any hits. Thus, each particle is like a
|
||
wave. The same has been show to hold for neutrons, though in the case
|
||
of ordinary sized objects, the wavelengths are so small that
|
||
interference effects are undetectable. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_05" align="right" hspace="5" width="225" height="30" border="0">he
|
||
structure of the hydrogen atom.</font> The laws of quantum mechanics
|
||
were discovered mainly by attempting to explain the structure of the
|
||
hydrogen atom. It had been established by Ernest Rutherford that the
|
||
atom is composed of a massive, positively charged nucleus surrounded
|
||
by far less massive electrons, and Niels Bohr hoped to explain the
|
||
chemical properties of atoms by the nature of the interactions
|
||
between the electrons and the nucleus. It was clear that atoms could
|
||
not be explained in classical terms on the model of the solar system,
|
||
since according to Maxwell’s equations, the orbital motion of an
|
||
electron would generate (as the acceleration of a negatively charged
|
||
particle) an electromagnetic wave which would drain its energy until
|
||
the electron was located at rest with the nucleus. In fact, atoms
|
||
with electrons located around it are quite stable, and when such
|
||
atoms are excited (by supplying energy to them), they give off
|
||
electromagnetic radiation at a certain set of distinctive
|
||
frequencies.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Bohr
|
||
explained the frequencies of the spectrum of hydrogen atoms (in 1913)
|
||
by assuming that electrons can have only certain orbits, each
|
||
characterized by an energy level that corresponds to the total energy
|
||
of an electron with kinetic energy in a force field with potential
|
||
energy imposed by the nucleus. (The total quantity of energy is
|
||
negative, because the kinetic energy of the particle is not great
|
||
enough to replace all the negative potential energy that would be
|
||
required to free it, and according to our assumption about the nature
|
||
of potential energy, the negative sign for potential energy indicates
|
||
that the nucleus and electron have less rest mass.) The energies of
|
||
the possible orbits were determined as a function of Planck’s
|
||
constant, and a number was assigned to each possible orbit, starting
|
||
with the lowest energy orbit and counting upwards (<i>n = 1, 2, 3, .
|
||
. </i>). Bohr showed that the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom
|
||
could be explained by the differences in the energies of these
|
||
permitted electron orbits. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The basic
|
||
puzzle of quantum mechanics is the structure of the atom itself, that
|
||
is, what is going on that only certain energy levels are possible for
|
||
electrons bound to a nucleus by electromagnetic forces. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Given the
|
||
structure of the atom, however, there is another problem, for it does
|
||
not seem possible that electrons could be jumping from one orbital to
|
||
another. When a photon is absorbed or emitted by an atom, an electron
|
||
changes from one permitted orbital to another (so that the atom
|
||
changes from one energy state to another). But the photon has a
|
||
particle-like nature, and the particle seems to change its position
|
||
and motion in an instantaneous, step-like change, that is, without
|
||
accelerating nor even moving continuously from one state to the next.
|
||
It hard to see how the electron’s change of orbital can be
|
||
explained as the motion of a material object, since a material object
|
||
can change location only by moving across space continuously as time
|
||
passes time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Another
|
||
puzzle has to do with the timing of the emission of photons. When an
|
||
atom or molecule is in an energy state that can decay into a lower
|
||
energy state, it is not possible, even in principle, to say exactly
|
||
when it will decay. The timing can be assigned a probability, but the
|
||
theory has nothing to explain why it happens at one moment rather
|
||
than another within that range. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Electron
|
||
jumps also seem to be involved in the phenomenon of tunneling.
|
||
“Tunneling” refers to situations in which electrons seem to jump
|
||
across barriers imposed by force fields. On classical principles,
|
||
crossing such a force field would require more energy than the
|
||
electron has. Nevertheless, some electrons do jump across. Only a few
|
||
electrons do so, and there is no way to predict which ones will jump.
|
||
But it is so regular that this phenomenon is used as a kind of
|
||
microscope for mapping the surfaces of material objects. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Erwin
|
||
Schrödinger thought that it would be possible to avoid these puzzles
|
||
about electron jumps and explain everything deterministically by
|
||
following up on de Broglie’s suggestion and explaining the behavior
|
||
of the electron in an atom as a wave. Using the model of the
|
||
classical equation for waves and taking the electron wave to be in a
|
||
potential field, Schrödinger presented an equation in 1925 that
|
||
explained the energy levels of the permitted orbitals of electrons in
|
||
the force field imposed by the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. The
|
||
time-independent Schrödinger equation (with the temporal changes
|
||
factored out so that it represents only the spatial structure of the
|
||
wave) portrays the electron bound to the nucleus of the hydrogen atom
|
||
as a standing wave, like a plucked string on a guitar. This made it
|
||
possible for Schrödinger to explain the numbers that Bohr had
|
||
assigned to the permitted orbitals of electrons as the energy states
|
||
in which the electron could be such a stable, standing wave. The
|
||
lowest energy level corresponds to the string with no nodes (that is,
|
||
half the wave length for its energy), the next one to a string with
|
||
one node, and so on. The problem of quantum jumps seemed to be
|
||
solved, because the transitions between such energy states of atoms
|
||
were explained as smooth and continuous transitions of waves. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Schrödinger
|
||
believed that his wavefunction showed that electrons were not
|
||
particles at all, but could be explained purely as waves in an
|
||
electromagnetic field. This did not explain why electrons appear to
|
||
be particles, for example, how they leave vapor trails in a Wilson
|
||
cloud chamber or interact at a certain point on the distant wall in
|
||
the two-slit interference experiment. But it is possible to explain
|
||
why electrons seem to have a determinate location by holding that
|
||
they are a "superposition" of waves with slightly different
|
||
wavelengths, because in regions where such wave interfere
|
||
constructively, they clump together in what are called “wave
|
||
packets.” Since the locations where such a set of waves interfere
|
||
constructively have more or less precise locations in space and seem
|
||
to move through the space occupied by the waves, the Schrödinger
|
||
wavefunction could explain the appearance that electrons move like
|
||
particles. (This was not a fully adequate explanation, however,
|
||
because such wave packets also tend to disperse over time, and yet
|
||
electrons actually turn up later at definite locations.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However, it
|
||
was not possible to interpret the Schrödinger wavefunction as the
|
||
description of a classical wave. One problem was that it contained
|
||
complex numbers. There is no way to measure quantities multiplied by
|
||
the square root of minus one, and yet those complex numbers are
|
||
essential to the wavefunction, since they describe the phases of the
|
||
waves that are superimposed in the quantum system and, thereby,
|
||
determine the interference phenomena. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Furthermore,
|
||
the Schrödinger wavefunction described a wave in a space that can
|
||
have more than three dimensions (or what is called “configuration
|
||
space). When more than one particle is involved, the space occupied
|
||
by the wave described by Schrödinger’s wavefunction has three
|
||
times as many dimensions as there are particles. There is no obvious
|
||
way to relate such an equations to the actual three dimensional
|
||
world.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
is now the orthodox interpretation of the Schrödinger wavefunction
|
||
was first proposed by Max Born in 1926. He took the square of the
|
||
(time-independent) wavefunction in some region of configuration space
|
||
to be a measure of the probability of finding that the particle
|
||
located in that region of configuration space (thereby predicting a
|
||
measurable property, such as location, momentum or kinetic energy).
|
||
The predictions are confirmed by measurement. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since the
|
||
predictions are merely probabilistic predictions, however, Born took
|
||
the Schrödinger wavefunction to be a representation, not of the
|
||
world itself, but of what we can know about it. This avoided the
|
||
problems of quantum jumps and wave packets that spread out, because
|
||
what really happens is not knowable. And insofar as it is taken
|
||
realistically, it implies that what happens is not fully determined
|
||
by the state that precedes it.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">H<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_06" align="right" hspace="5" width="225" height="34" border="0">eisenberg
|
||
uncertainty principle. </font>An entirely different mathematical
|
||
representation of these same quantum phenomena was developed by
|
||
Werner Heisenberg. His “matrix mechanics” is basically an
|
||
algorithm for making predictions of measurements without any attempt
|
||
to explain what is going on beneath the observable surface. Though
|
||
Schrödinger showed that Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics and his own
|
||
wavefunction are mathematically equivalent, matrix mechanics makes
|
||
the limitations on what can be known about the classical properties
|
||
of the entities described by quantum mechanics clear. In arguing
|
||
against Schrödinger, he defended what has come to be known as the
|
||
Heisenberg uncertainty principle.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
matrix mechanics, there are pairs of variables called “complementary”
|
||
or “conjugate” variables, because the measurement of one affects
|
||
the measurement of the other. That is, the results of measuring one
|
||
variable and then the other would be different if they were measured
|
||
in the opposite order. The position and momentum of an electron are
|
||
complementary variables, meaning that the position and momentum of an
|
||
electron cannot both be measured with arbitrarily high precision But
|
||
the more precise one measurement is, the less precise the other is.
|
||
Using Born’s probabilistic interpretation of the wavefunction to
|
||
express the “uncertainties” in such measurement, Heisenberg
|
||
derived a general principle about complementary variables: the
|
||
product of the uncertainty about the position and the uncertainty
|
||
about the momentum cannot be less than Planck’s constant divided by
|
||
four pi. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Heisenberg’s
|
||
uncertainty principle holds in a parallel way for other conjugate
|
||
variables, such as energy and time, angular momentum and orientation,
|
||
and cycle and phase. In each case, one variable is more particle-like
|
||
and the other is more wave-like, and thus, the variables are said to
|
||
be complementary. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Heisenberg
|
||
apparently took his uncertainty principle to be a basic postulate
|
||
from which all of quantum mechanics could be developed. He rejected
|
||
talk about the wave-particle duality and took a purely
|
||
instrumentalist approach which simply denied that there is any aspect
|
||
of the world that is not described by his matrix mechanics (or by
|
||
their equivalents in using the Schrödinger wavefunction). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
equivalence of Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics and Schrödinger’s
|
||
equation means that the Heisenberg uncertainty principle can be
|
||
derived in a similar way from Schrödinger’s equation. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
solution of Schrödinger’s equation for a given situation yields a
|
||
wavefunction, which is a complete description of the quantum system.
|
||
But in order to predict a measurable property, it is necessary to
|
||
apply an appropriate mathematical operator to the wavefunction. The
|
||
operator yields an “expectation value” for that property, which
|
||
may be a precise value or an average value. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But some
|
||
pairs of operators are not commutable, such as the position and
|
||
momentum of a particle. Though it is often possible to make precise
|
||
predictions of these properties, the prediction of one makes it
|
||
impossible to predict the other. That is, when one property is
|
||
predicted by one operator, the mathematical operation changes the
|
||
wavefunction and so the prediction made for the other property is not
|
||
the same as it would have been if the second property had been
|
||
predicted first. Since the order in which the operators are applied
|
||
to the wavefunction makes a difference in what they predict, it is
|
||
impossible to predict both properties at once. Thus, the conjugate
|
||
variables to which Heisenberg’s uncertainty applies turn out to be
|
||
the pairs of properties predicted by non-commutable operators.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">When the
|
||
operator yields an expectation value that is just the average result
|
||
for an entire series of experiments, it can often be represented as a
|
||
superposition of different wavefunctions for each of which the
|
||
operator gives an expectation value. When the measurement is made and
|
||
one of them turns out to be true, the wavefunction is said to
|
||
“collapse,” because the system turns out to have one or another
|
||
of precise predicted outcomes. This is called the “collapse of the
|
||
wavefunction,” because it is assumed that prior to the measurement,
|
||
what actually existed was a superposition of different wavefunctions.
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
interpretation of the measurement of a quantum system exacerbates the
|
||
problem, for the superposed states of the system can evolve in
|
||
radically different ways. In the most famous example, a cat is locked
|
||
in a box with a devise triggered by an unpredictable beta decay that
|
||
will, with 50% probability, release a poison that kills the cat
|
||
within a certain period of time. But until someone looks to see what
|
||
has happened, there is a superposition of the two states, one with a
|
||
dead cat and another with a living cat, and reality only resolves
|
||
itself into one or the other possibility at the moment someone looks.
|
||
This implausible implication of measurement being the collapse of the
|
||
wavefunction is called the problem of "Schrödinger’s cat."</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
Heisenberg uncertainty principle is, perhaps, the most general
|
||
statement of the puzzles of quantum mechanics, and a genuine
|
||
ontological explanation of quantum mechanics, if there is one, should
|
||
reveal the source of this limitation on our knowledge. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">B<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_07" align="right" hspace="5" width="225" height="32" border="0">ell
|
||
correlations. </font>Recently, attention has focused on a final
|
||
quantum mystery, called “Bell’s Theorem” or “Bell’s
|
||
Inequality.”<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote30anc" href="#sdendnote30sym"><sup>xxx</sup></a></sup>
|
||
John Bell showed that quantum mechanics entails, in certain
|
||
circumstances, a statistical correlation between events occurring at
|
||
a distance that seems to be possible only if the events have effects
|
||
on one another that travel faster than the velocity of light. It
|
||
holds for interactions in which particles move away from one another
|
||
in opposite directions with opposite orientations of a “spin”. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Spin.</b></i>
|
||
Spin is a quantum property that was first recognized with the
|
||
discovery of quantum field theory. The Schrödinger wavefunction is
|
||
the law of non-relativistic quantum mechanics, and a more complete
|
||
law was discovered by Paul Dirac when he combined the Schrödinger
|
||
wavefunction with Einstein’s special theory of relativity, that is,
|
||
taking the relationship it describes between space and time into
|
||
account. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There was
|
||
an asymmetry between the time-dependent and time–independent
|
||
wavefunctions derived by solving Schrödinger equation. The
|
||
time-independent wavefunction, describing the spatial aspects of the
|
||
standing wave, is a <i>second order </i>differential equation,
|
||
whereas the time-dependent wavefunction, describing how the quantum
|
||
system unfolds in time, is a <i>first order </i>differential
|
||
equation. Dirac derived a time-dependent wavefunction that was a
|
||
second order differential equation, making time and space
|
||
symmetrical, as they are in the special theory of relativity.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is puzzling just what makes Dirac's derivation work, but it involved
|
||
several profound discoveries. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Dirac
|
||
discovered that there are twice as many solutions for the
|
||
wavefunctions than had been thought, half of them corresponding to
|
||
negative energy. This was the discovery of antimatter, such as, for
|
||
example, the positively charged electron as the negative partner of
|
||
the negatively charged electron, called the "positron."</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Dirac
|
||
discovered that quantum particles have another property, called
|
||
“spin,” which was a new quantum number that was needed for
|
||
wavefunctions to describe fully any quantum situation. That is, spin
|
||
is a new quantum number (namely, <i>s</i>) needed to describe the
|
||
atom (along with Bohr’s numbers for the energy states of atoms (<i>n</i>),
|
||
a number for the orbital angular momentum of the electron (<i>i</i>),
|
||
and a number for its magnetic moment (<i>m</i>)). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It is
|
||
believed that the intrinsic spin of an electron has little to do with
|
||
a spinning electrical charge. The spin of a particle is defined
|
||
operationally as the strength of the magnetic force that results when
|
||
a magnetic field is imposed on the particle. Particles, such as the
|
||
electron, that have ½ spin (called “fermions”) have one of only
|
||
two possible magnetic moments (positive and negative). Since there is
|
||
no way for them not to have a magnetic moment, it is hard to see how
|
||
they could be a classical material object with a charge that is
|
||
somehow actually spinning. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Bell’s
|
||
Inequality.</b></i> John Bell discovered a curious consequence of
|
||
quantum mechanics involving spin. The spin of a particle (either a
|
||
rest mass or a photon, which has a spin of 1) would seem to a
|
||
property that the particle carries with it, but a prediction made on
|
||
this assumption contradicts quantum mechanics. And it seems to have
|
||
been disproved empirically. This suggest that spin is a property that
|
||
depends, not on the particle itself, but on what happens elsewhere in
|
||
a much more inclusive system involving both particles. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The system
|
||
is one in which two objects are generated in a way that requires them
|
||
to have opposite orientations of spin, and they move away from one
|
||
another in opposite directions. Since space is three dimensional, the
|
||
spin of a particle can be measured from three different, mutually
|
||
perpendicular directions. If one particles is measured as having as
|
||
having spin, say, up, in some direction, then the other particle will
|
||
never turn out to have anything but the opposite, down, orientation
|
||
of spin when it is measured in the same direction. This holds
|
||
regardless which of the three independent directions in space the
|
||
magnetic field is oriented, and quantum mechanics does not permit one
|
||
to infer from its spin in one direction what its spin in any other
|
||
direction is. Thus, if spin is a property that the particles already
|
||
have when they part from one another, the outcome of measuring the
|
||
spin of the particles that moved off one way from their creation from
|
||
one direction should not enable us to predict the spin of the other
|
||
particle when measured from a different direction. Bell showed that,
|
||
on this assumption, a certain inequality must hold about the
|
||
frequency with which measurements of spin in one particle in one
|
||
direction would correlate with measurements of the spin of the other
|
||
particle in one of the other directions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However,
|
||
quantum theory predicts and experiments have confirmed that this
|
||
inequality will be violated. When two objects are generated in this
|
||
way, and the spin orientation of one of these objects is measured in
|
||
one direction, it is possible to predict the outcome of a measurement
|
||
of the spin orientation (up or down) of the other object in an
|
||
independent direction of three dimensional space more often than the
|
||
Bell inequality allows. It is not a reliable prediction in any
|
||
particular case, but statistically it is more frequent than would be
|
||
possible, if the spin orientations of both objects were already
|
||
determined when they parted and they were simply carried away with
|
||
them, as the principle of local action would require. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though the
|
||
two measurements can be made as far apart in space as one likes, it
|
||
seems that the only way the measurements could be correlated is if
|
||
the measurement of one object were somehow affecting the state of the
|
||
other. And since the two measurements can be made to occur as near to
|
||
one another in time as one likes, there are instances of this
|
||
phenomenon in which such an effect could hold only if something
|
||
travels between them faster than the velocity of light. This puzzling
|
||
correlation is not only a consequence of quantum theory, but has also
|
||
been confirmed experimentally, and thus, it seems that we must give
|
||
up the principle of local action. But it seems to violate the
|
||
principle of local action. Since the different outcomes are a
|
||
superposition of different wavefunctions, this is seen as just
|
||
another puzzles about the so-called "collapse of the
|
||
wavefunction."</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
puzzles of quantum mechanics have to do with understanding what in
|
||
the world corresponds to the Schrödinger equation. The “Copenhagen
|
||
interpretation” of quantum mechanics, developed by Bohr, is the
|
||
received view. It simply denies that it is possible to describe the
|
||
nature of what exists except by applying the classical conceptions of
|
||
particles or wave, which if not strictly speaking incompatible, are,
|
||
at best, complementary. Defenders of the Copenhagen interpretation
|
||
see the puzzles of quantum mechanics as deriving from its departures
|
||
from classical physics, as if classical physics were based on
|
||
intuitions ( or a form of imagination) that is anthropocentric and,
|
||
thus, merely subjective. And some go on to insist that the
|
||
uncertainty is a real indeterminism about what happens in the world. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
chief opponent of this view was Einstein. He was resisting the
|
||
reification of quantum uncertainty as indeterminism when he claimed,
|
||
“God does not play dice with the universe.” A view of the world
|
||
as being constituted by substances of some kind is what kept Einstein
|
||
from accepting quantum mechanics as the complete description of what
|
||
exists. His acceptance of spacetime as a substance made him most
|
||
sympathetic to Spinoza, for Spinoza believed that the world is a
|
||
single substance. But what seems to have kept Einstein from admitting
|
||
that such a substance could have indeterminism as a basic property
|
||
were his ontological instincts. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
what follows, I will elaborate the the assumptions of
|
||
spatiomaterialism in a way that explains ontologically why quantum
|
||
mechanics is true. It is, as I have warned, more speculative than the
|
||
rest of the argument of ontological philosophy. But it may suggest
|
||
the power of an ontological approach and vindicate Einstein’s view
|
||
of the nature of the world in at least one respect. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>T<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAF4AAAAcCAMAAADfnPg7AAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpGPjA4MSZ+AAAqJR0cGBMNDAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAudIAeAAABs0lEQVR4nMWWjZLbIAyEV/zKAyrE7/+wXbCbtLnLDXetr5qxYwvxGYS0E/y41LBfatfjcZkd+DANm1+ZIsWW4h54VTNVWFiZUjLkc3jwA7xZrtXx2YqDqKlwWyllutJcryuW4HrRVfoTfkMu2BTRQIYWaN8S3+U219uD1CQtL23yHXxAMNxUld4xON2uI5URy7FxraXwJX6fx/zAo6bm/x3eMuDP5+kO3WasdMFyAbzES22twpux/qYbPR7BsbUiX8J/ZEz+V20Fz0K/Ev8X9p/xi58ex/1e6IkPVtWBZcKKD9VYHyGWUUi7JrrGSIq1UimOcxijPhq7LVGtplCMUPhK2YA6wn7Du+6kzVZiJXo3pEFNfIfbgx/FuR+K0bz0OXGM3iIbDkFwCMUIdc0JF7XXP/F5m/s78JJrOxpqx+ma+NkUZ9WfPv44ta6/kpOpu9zM/pScEX3HtyxhGe/YcnrHa6GeuDd4KiRGcmQIJe/pgacObMzRK3xoGHMsztBA2aCgPONRWu2B8lurInUrd7y2zXXT18kpjVVBubARitSsxbd44FNSsmzfhr/EvuN/zpX2E5pJN+fWQ1lbAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCLQm_08" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="59" border="0">he
|
||
theory of quantum matter.</b></font> In order to show the possibility
|
||
of a spatiomaterialist explanation of quantum mechanics, I will
|
||
describe one way that the relevant phenomena might be constituted by
|
||
space and matter as substances enduring through time. This will
|
||
require a refinement of the assumptions made thus far about the
|
||
natures of both matter and space. It is a refinement is a basic
|
||
aspect, because it has to do with how these substances <i>endure
|
||
through time</i>.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">Space
|
||
and matter were postulated in </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/LoOtfS.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="2" style="font-size: 10pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Spatiomaterialism</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">as
|
||
substances with essential natures that are opposite in a most
|
||
fundamental way. The parts of space all have essential natures that
|
||
include geometrical relationships to one another, so that the
|
||
existence of one depends on the existence of all the others. But the
|
||
parts of matter can all exist independently of one another. Being
|
||
opposite in that way, it was possible to explain why bits of matter
|
||
have spatial relations to one another and how change is possible by
|
||
assuming that bits of matter exist together with space as a world by
|
||
each coinciding with some part of space or another. These are the
|
||
basic assumptions of spatiomaterialism, and it is possible to make
|
||
further assumptions about the natures of space and matter, as long as
|
||
they are consistent with these basic assumptions. </span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">I made
|
||
further assumptions about the nature of space and matter in order to
|
||
explain how the laws of classical physics are true. I assumed that
|
||
the nature of matter coincides with space in all the forms that are
|
||
counted by physics in its principle of the conservation of mass and
|
||
energy: rest mass, kinetic energy, two kinds of force-field matter
|
||
(electric charges and gravitational fields), and two kinds of waves
|
||
of forces (electromagnetic waves and gravitational waves). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">I made
|
||
another assumption about the nature of space and matter in order to
|
||
explain Einstein’s special theory of relativity ontologically. I
|
||
assumed that space has an inherent motion (or “ether”) which
|
||
determines the velocity of light), and that material objects suffer
|
||
Lorentz distortions as a function of their velocity relative to the
|
||
inherent motion. (In order to suggest the inevitability of the
|
||
Lorentz distortions, I anticipated a conclusion that I will defend
|
||
here, namely, that material objects are constituted by unit-like
|
||
interactions that are equivalent to the two-way electromagnetic
|
||
interactions involved in the an interferometer.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">I made yet
|
||
another assumption about the nature of space and matter in order to
|
||
explain Einstein’s general theory of relativity. I assumed that
|
||
centers of matter exert a force on the surrounding space that
|
||
accelerates the inherent motion (or ether) and, thereby, accelerates
|
||
all the bits of matter that coincide with space by way of it. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order to
|
||
explain ontologically the truth of the laws of quantum mechanics, I
|
||
will make further assumptions about both space and matter. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">S<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAC8AAAAOCAMAAACICbUNAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpGPjA4MSYqJR17AAAcGBMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAC+ZdJaAAAAiUlEQVR4nJ2S4QoEIQiEp8vUqLz2/V92jd3jYOlH7RCD0KeoiO+xJbzgsaw/T6pxg0+FkmzwcsG9GiFayxheEJvJlA/ZWgIMoTqqHSgfBJRE9uCP37zBf9p4XOkK3VR1yosSe+VOWTxOXl8zybAnf/fDysH7ER7JPJzHwljTlL/VVvezqHf3sKMTrCMSyUdX+SQAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="TtsOtkCLQm_09" align="right" hspace="5" width="125" height="37" border="0">pace.</font>
|
||
As we have already assumed, space has an inherent motion. This aspect
|
||
of the nature of space determines the velocity of light. This
|
||
assumption about the motion of electromagnetic waves (or photons) is
|
||
crucial to the spatiomaterialist explanation of relativity theory,
|
||
because it is the motion of objects with rest mass relative to the
|
||
inherent motion that gives rise to the Lorentz distortions which
|
||
explain the phenomena of special relativity. And the acceleration of
|
||
the inherent motion itself relative to space is what explains the
|
||
gravitational phenomena covered by general relativity. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
inherent motion of space is what plays the role that the ether was
|
||
supposed to play in classical physics. The inherent motion mediates
|
||
all the motion and interactions among bits of matter, because it is
|
||
the aspect of space by which bits of matter coincide with parts of
|
||
space. Since the inherent motion goes both ways in every direction of
|
||
three dimensional space, there is a certain velocity at any point
|
||
that is at “rest” relative to the inherent motion itself (that
|
||
is, at rest in the ether). Relative to that inertial frame, light has
|
||
the velocity, c, <i>both ways </i>in every direction in three
|
||
dimensional space. But rest relative to the inherent motion may not
|
||
be rest relative to space, because in gravitational fields, the
|
||
inherent motion (or ether) is in motion relative to space and even
|
||
accelerating. That aspect of its nature can, however, be set aside
|
||
for now, because the inherent motion in substantival space that is
|
||
the relevant aspect in explaining the quantum nature of matter.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
make it concrete, consider what the inherent motion must involve in
|
||
order to explain electromagnetic waves. It must exist at every
|
||
location in space at every moment. It must always have the same
|
||
velocity in space (except, of course, for the changes that occur in
|
||
gravitational fields). In each part of space, it must sweep through
|
||
space in every possible direction, that is, both ways in every
|
||
direction in three dimensional space. And it must be able to carry
|
||
electromagnetic waves of every possible wavelength and every possible
|
||
phase of every wavelength across every point in space, preserving
|
||
their wavelengths and phases. (And as we shall see, it must do this
|
||
for photons of two kinds, one of each possible orientation of spin.) </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since the
|
||
inherent motion is sweeping through every part of space at the same
|
||
time, what is sweeping through any part of space in any given
|
||
direction is like of a wave front. The same motion sweeps through all
|
||
the points in every two dimensional plane of which it is part.
|
||
Indeed, there is such a wave front sweeping in every direction
|
||
through every point of space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Nor is it
|
||
inappropriate to speak of the inherent motion as having waves, since
|
||
it carries every possible wavelength of light, and as we shall see,
|
||
the wavelengths of those wave fronts make a difference in what
|
||
happens. It takes a certain period time for a photon (a complete
|
||
cycle of electromagnetic radiation) to pass any given point, and
|
||
since the photon is carried along by the inherent motion, such a
|
||
cycle marks out a certain distance (its wavelength) over and over
|
||
along its path. Indeed, since this is always happening, there is
|
||
always already a series of wavelengths implicitly marked out in space
|
||
by the inherent motion at any given wavelength, each going through a
|
||
cycle at the same time as all the others, that is, at the present
|
||
moment. This pattern holds for every wavelength and for every phase
|
||
of each wavelength both ways in every direction. And it holds both
|
||
ways in every direction for each point in space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">I
|
||
elaborate this implication of postulating the inherent motion in
|
||
order to make explicit what all I will <i>not </i>try to explain
|
||
about the nature of space. By calling it an “inherent motion in
|
||
space”, I mean that it is an aspect of the nature of space itself.
|
||
That means, at a minimum that it is occurring at every location in
|
||
space, whether there is any light there or not. But what is more, it
|
||
means that space is what <i>causes </i>light to move as it does. The
|
||
inherent motion at any location <i>in space carries </i>light along
|
||
with it, when matter of that kind happens to coincide with that part
|
||
of space. Unless the inherent motion of space were responsible for
|
||
the velocity of light, it would not be possible to explain
|
||
relativistic phenomena ontologically. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
inherent motion, therefore, marks out distances in space according to
|
||
any cycle of changes occurring locally as time passes. This is to
|
||
talk about the inherent motion as if it were a real set of events
|
||
taking place in space, and as I said earlier, it may be possible to
|
||
formulate a simpler spatiomaterialist explanation in which the
|
||
inherent motion is merely a spatio-temporal aspect of the nature of
|
||
space as a substance, that is, a geometrical structure about space
|
||
</span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><i>and
|
||
time</i></span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.
|
||
The inherent motion is, after all, basically a relationship between
|
||
distances in space and periods of time that are built into the
|
||
essential nature of space. That is to add a temporal aspect to the
|
||
spatial relationships that space was originally assumed to have in
|
||
</span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/LoOtfS.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="1" style="font-size: 1pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Spatiomaterialism</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">in
|
||
order to explain the three-dimensional geometrical structure of
|
||
space. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Each part
|
||
of space has not only an essential geometrical relationship to every
|
||
other part of space at the present moment, but also an essential
|
||
relationship to future and past moments in the existence of every
|
||
other part of space. To be sure, the past and future states of parts
|
||
of space do not exist, because nothing exists but what exists at
|
||
present, if substance endure through time. That means that one
|
||
location’s relationship to future or past states of another
|
||
location is a temporally complex property of space, which determines
|
||
the maximum velocity with which what happens in one part of space and
|
||
affect what happen in other parts of space. But that temporally
|
||
complex property corresponds to a temporally simple relationship that
|
||
actually exists among the parts of space as time passes. That is what
|
||
I mean to emphasize by talking about the wave patterns set up in
|
||
space by the inherent motion sweeping though every part of space,
|
||
both ways, in every direction. These patterns may be nothing more
|
||
than simply how all the parts of space endures through time, but
|
||
speaking of these patterns as being laid out by the inherent motion
|
||
in real time dramatizes the role they play in explaining the
|
||
regularities described by quantum mechanics. And at this point,
|
||
clarity about what is being assumed is more important than
|
||
simplicity, since it is not necessary to have the simplest
|
||
ontological explanation in order to show that there is such an
|
||
explanation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">M<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAC8AAAAPCAMAAABDVWaoAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpGPjA4MSYqJR17AAAcGBMNDAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADSUW97AAAAkklEQVR4nLXS6wqDMAwF4NyWHWmjne//sEvZdIOJqLD8SOnhawmlNJ0rmuZTdcXT4Vq9gIixxJob2fXWnNCWODLAvkfwkKxEKPkjtLQgrlHzcIlvP789qmXOXrDe77CqFExbnktno98/HgUQiu15XmOPNqB30XojC3Pd9mLZPF8GZv205DB9de7prz9Y1/w//88T9OAWuSz2HGAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="TtsOtkCLQm_10" align="right" hspace="5" width="125" height="39" border="0">atter.</font>
|
||
In order to give a deeper explanation of the nature of matter, we
|
||
must distinguish between two kinds of matter, which I will call
|
||
“force-field matter” and “quantum matter.” Three of the six
|
||
forms of matter that were distinguished in order to explain the truth
|
||
of classical mechanics are forms of force-field matter (electric
|
||
fields, gravitational fields, and gravitational waves), and three are
|
||
forms of quantum matter (rest mass matter, kinetic energy matter, and
|
||
photons). Force-field matter has already been explained ontologically
|
||
as involving a property (or temporally variable condition) of parts
|
||
of space (though there is more to be said about it). And it is the
|
||
nature of quantum matter that will bear the major burden of this
|
||
ontological explanation of the quantum mechanics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>F<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_11" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="35" border="0">orce-field
|
||
matter.</b></i> By “force-field matter,” I mean forms of matter
|
||
that are constituted by a changeable property or condition of parts
|
||
of space. The property of space acts like a force, because it changes
|
||
the way in which bits of matter coinciding with that part of space
|
||
move and interact. Consider the three forms of force-field matter:</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Gravitational
|
||
fields.</i> Gravitational matter is one kind of force-field matter,
|
||
and we can set it aside, because it has already been explained.
|
||
Gravitational matter is the matter that exists as the force field
|
||
that gravitating bodies impose on the surrounding space, accelerating
|
||
the inherent motion (the ether) toward themselves. Like any form of
|
||
potential energy, the quantity of matter involved in a gravitational
|
||
field is already counted in the rest masses of the objects exerting
|
||
the forces. That is, their rest masses decline as the bodies attract
|
||
one another, acquiring kinetic energy at the expense of potential
|
||
energy (though as we shall see, force-field matter is not actually
|
||
converted to kinetic <i>quantum matter </i>until the material objects
|
||
acquire kinetic energy <i>relative to the inherent motion</i> by
|
||
colliding with other material objects near the center). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Gravitational
|
||
waves.</i> Since gravitation is a force that propagates with the
|
||
inherent motion of space, gravitating bodies can set up gravitational
|
||
waves, which exist independently of material objects with rest mass,
|
||
for example, from binary stars, which are in orbit around one
|
||
another. But this is still a form of force-field matter, not quantum
|
||
matter, because the gravitational force propagating at the velocity
|
||
of light acts on space, not on bits of matter directly. It is by
|
||
accelerating the inherent motion in the parts of space it encounters
|
||
that gravitation accelerates bits of matter, not by interacting with
|
||
bits of matter directly. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Electric
|
||
fields.</i> An electric charge also imposes a force field on the
|
||
space surrounding the material objects that has the charge, and that
|
||
is another form of force-field matter. The electric field is another
|
||
property (or variable condition) of space which affects other
|
||
material objects with electric charges. Electromagnetic matter
|
||
contained in electric charges is already counted in the rest masses
|
||
of the objects that have the charge, and matter is conserved, because
|
||
as we have seen, the consumption of potential energy is counted as a
|
||
negative quantity.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
electric field is more complex than the gravitational field, as we
|
||
have seen, because changes in the electric field cause magnetic
|
||
forces. But that connection between electric and magnetic forces,
|
||
which is described by Maxwell’s equations, can be explained as
|
||
another aspect of the nature of space. That is, changes in the
|
||
electric field caused by the motion of an object with rest mass
|
||
propagate as a result of the inherent motion in space, and thus, the
|
||
electromagnetic interactions are relative to the inherent motion (as
|
||
we have assumed in explaining Einsteinian relativity). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Quantum
|
||
electrodynamics is the gauge field theory that is currently accepted
|
||
by physics as an explanation of the electric charge and its behavior,
|
||
and such a theory lends itself to a spatiomaterialist ontological
|
||
explanation, because it portrays forces as being exerted by the
|
||
exchange of particles, called the "boson" of the gauge
|
||
field. In this case, it is a virtual photon. The electric charge is
|
||
described as having a certain orientation in a complex vector plane,
|
||
and the forces exerted on the charged particle by the virtual photons
|
||
are just what is required for the orientation of the charge to be
|
||
unchanged in that complex vector plane by its change of location.
|
||
Those forces turn out to the forces described by Maxwell’s law. But
|
||
since the force field is explained as virtual photons emerging from
|
||
space as a result of the charged particle's motion at its location in
|
||
the field, the gauge field theory is the kind of explanation that can
|
||
be given an ontological explanation by spatiomaterialism. (More will
|
||
be said about the nature of the electric charge and the gauge bosons
|
||
that mediate interactions among charged particles as required as we
|
||
go along and, more completely, when we take up the basic particles.
|
||
See </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaLeCosGaugeField.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="1" style="font-size: 1pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Change:
|
||
Basic Objects</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.)</span></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Q<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_12" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="32" border="0">uantum
|
||
matter. </b></i>The nature of quantum matter is the basis of this
|
||
ontological explanation of quantum mechanics, and the remaining three
|
||
forms of matter (rest mass matter, kinetic energy matter, and
|
||
electromagnetic waves) are all forms of quantum matter. Like the new
|
||
assumption about the nature of space, this new assumption about
|
||
quantum matter recognizes a temporal aspect to the nature of matter,
|
||
though it is a temporal property suited to the opposite nature of
|
||
matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Parts
|
||
of space are all connected geometrically, and since the inherent
|
||
motion connects them all temporally as well, the endurance of space
|
||
through time is characterized by the inherent motion (or the
|
||
spatio-temporal geometry) described above. Much the same way of
|
||
enduring through time also characterizes force-field matter, since
|
||
force-field matter is spread out continuously in regions of space
|
||
through which the inherent motion is constantly flowing. But since
|
||
bits of matter can exist independently of one another, there is
|
||
another way in which they can have a further temporal aspect to their
|
||
nature. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
new assumption is that quantum matter is just a series of cyclic
|
||
events that occur over time. That is, bits of quantum matter endure
|
||
through time as a series of unit-like events whose cyclic nature
|
||
entails that each event gives rise to another event of the same kind
|
||
(unless it interacts with another bit of matter in some way and
|
||
another kind of cyclic event ensues). Since these events follow one
|
||
another as time passes, cycles of events (of the same kind) are a way
|
||
of counting time, much as the inherent motion in space allows periods
|
||
of time to be counted by the distance it crosses. These events will
|
||
be called “quantum event,” because these are the smallest changes
|
||
that can take place in a spatiomaterialism world (except for the
|
||
inherent motion itself in smaller parts of space). Quantum events
|
||
cannot be divided up in to smaller events, and so they are elementary
|
||
units. But since they are <i>cyclic </i>events, each gives rise to
|
||
another event, and since they reproduce in time, they explain the
|
||
endurance of bits of (quantum) matter through time. The way that
|
||
matter endures through time as a series of cyclic quantum events is
|
||
mainly what the “quantum” in quantum mechanics is referring to,
|
||
according to this spatiomaterialist explanation of quantum mechanics.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">An
|
||
“event” has both a spatial and a temporal dimension. It begins at
|
||
some place and time and ends at some place and time. What happens in
|
||
a quantum event is that a force is exerted and change is caused. The
|
||
force may cause a change in another force, as illustrated by the
|
||
photon, in which electric and magnetic forces are coupled in cycles.
|
||
Or the quantum event may be a force that changes the motion of an
|
||
object with rest mass, as we shall see holds in the case of the
|
||
motion of an object with rest mass.. Different forms of quantum
|
||
matter are constituted by different kinds of quantum events, as we
|
||
shall see. But since they are elemental events, they all have the
|
||
same, smallest size. That size is what is represented by “Planck’s
|
||
constant”, <i>h</i>. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Planck’s
|
||
constant is a certain size in a parameter called “action”. Though
|
||
action was recognized early in the Newtonian era as one kind of
|
||
physical quantity, it has nearly dropped out of contemporary physics
|
||
(except for the constant <i>h</i>), apparently because it need not be
|
||
mentioned in describing efficient causes. Action is, however, defined
|
||
in terms of a certain physical quantities that are mentioned as
|
||
efficient causes (such as spatial relations, mass, force, velocity,
|
||
acceleration, momentum, and energy). For our purposes, the most
|
||
useful way to think of action is as the <i>product of force times
|
||
distance times time</i>, as if a force were acting on something (such
|
||
as a unit mass) for a certain distance over a certain period of time.
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In units
|
||
that physicists take to be basic, action has the dimensions of <i>mass
|
||
</i>times <i>distance </i>squared per unit <i>time </i>(or mass times
|
||
distance squared per unit of time squared, all times time). And in
|
||
addition to thinking of it as force times distance times time, it can
|
||
be seen as <i>momentum (or mass times velocity) times distance </i>(that
|
||
is, as the integration of a change in momentum over the distance it
|
||
occurs). Alternatively, it can be seen as <i>energy (mass times
|
||
velocity squared) times time </i>(that is, as the integration of a
|
||
change in energy over the period of time it occurs). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In speaking
|
||
of momentum and kinetic energy, I assume that we are talking about
|
||
matter that is nearly at rest in the ether, where Newtonian laws hold
|
||
and momentum is approximately equal to mass times velocity and
|
||
kinetic energy is approximately equal to one-half of mass time the
|
||
square of velocity. This is not quite true, because according to the
|
||
special theory of relativity, mass increases with velocity. However,
|
||
by starting with rest mass as the quantity of matter constituting
|
||
particles at rest in the inherent motion, it will be possible to
|
||
explain why mass increases with velocity, because we will be able to
|
||
explain the extra mass as the matter making up its kinetic energy. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The idea
|
||
is, therefore, to interpret the quantum of action as an <i>event</i>,
|
||
that is, as a change of some kind that takes place in the world as a
|
||
result of something being done. This may be a little vague, but
|
||
remember that we are taking now about the most basic elements of what
|
||
exists in the world, and the nature of quantum events can be made
|
||
clear only by considering their various kinds. But since action is
|
||
measured in units that include both space and time, it is possible to
|
||
think of these events as having determinate boundaries in space and
|
||
time, that is, as beginning at some place and time and ending at some
|
||
place and time. That gives these events determinate locations in the
|
||
geometry of space and time as determined by the velocity of light,
|
||
that is, by the inherent motion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Planck’s
|
||
constant is a certain size of action, and we can explain why it
|
||
appears in all the equations of quantum theory, if we assume that
|
||
quantum events have an all-or-nothing character about them. Bits of
|
||
quantum matter endure, we assume, because they are constituted by
|
||
quantum events with a cyclic nature. Although cycles of quantum
|
||
events may follow one another continuously in time and space, there
|
||
is a unit-like nature about them, so that either a whole quantum
|
||
event occurs, or it does not occur at all. This means, on the one
|
||
hand, that nothing can happen that involves less than a unit of
|
||
action (except possibly the inherent motion), and on the other, that
|
||
everything that does happen to quantum matter is made up in some way
|
||
of a certain number and kinds of these elemental units of action. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
assumption that quanta all have the same amount of action is not as
|
||
restricting as it may seem, because quanta have widely varied
|
||
temporal and spatial dimensions. They can take place in a short
|
||
distance in a brief period of time, if the force is great enough, or
|
||
they can take place over a longer distance in a longer period of
|
||
time, when the force is weaker. But in order to spell out the
|
||
assumption that they have a unit-like nature, let us think of quanta
|
||
as having end points in space and time, so that quantum events can be
|
||
fit together as complete cycles in the spatio-temporal geometry of
|
||
the inherent motion of space in different ways. This model may be too
|
||
crude. It is unlikely that quantum events have anything as abrupt as
|
||
definite points at which one cycle ends and another begins. But that
|
||
is a way of keeping in mind the unit-like nature of these events,
|
||
even if it is just a place-holder to be replaced by a better
|
||
explanation of where and how one quantum event ends and another
|
||
quantum event begin. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">For
|
||
example, a better model of their unit-like nature would, perhaps, be
|
||
one in which interactions between different bits of matter can occur
|
||
only when whole cycles of the different bits of matter are lined up
|
||
somehow according to the spatio-temporal geometry of the inherent
|
||
motion in space. That is, given their precise locations in space and
|
||
time, the points at which quantum cycles stop and start would depend
|
||
on what they are interacting with and the direction from which they
|
||
are interacting, so that different starting points and stopping
|
||
points might hold if they were interacting with quantum cycles of
|
||
bits of matter from different directions in space, of different
|
||
kinds, or with different phases to their cycles. (Lining particles up
|
||
in this way could be, as we shall see, the role of their intrinsic
|
||
spin and its magnetic moment in mediating interactions of bits of
|
||
quantum matter.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Matter
|
||
is a substance, because it exists continuously over time, never
|
||
coming into existence nor going out of existence. We are assuming
|
||
that one form of matter can be converted into another, including
|
||
conversions between quantum matter and force-field matter (that is,
|
||
between potential and kinetic energy). But when matter exists in the
|
||
form of quantum matter, the endurance of bits of matter through time
|
||
is explained by the cyclic nature of the quantum events that
|
||
constitute their existence. That is, given that the quantum event
|
||
starts at some place and time, there is a certain place and time
|
||
where the cycle is complete, and at that point, another quantum event
|
||
begins. Since quantum events are related cyclically, they can
|
||
reproduce themselves in time. However, quantum cycles succeed one
|
||
another not only temporally, but also spatially, so that nothing is
|
||
flitting about discontinuously from place to place in space. Other
|
||
things being equal, quantum events give rise to other quantum events
|
||
of the same kind and dimensions as themselves. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Bits
|
||
of matter do, however, interact. I will say more about how they
|
||
interact in a moment, but in general, what happens is either the
|
||
conversion of matter between quantum forms and force-field forms of
|
||
matter and/or changes in the kinds of quantum matter. Force-field
|
||
matter is laid out in space, changing its shape with the motion of
|
||
the material objects that are imposing the forces. And since material
|
||
objects, their motion and photons are just cycles of quantum events
|
||
reproducing themselves in time, what changes are the kinds, numbers,
|
||
and dimensions of the quantum events constituting them. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since the
|
||
quantum events have a unit like nature, what happens to bits of
|
||
quantum and force-field matter in space involves fitting quantum
|
||
events together in space and time according to certain laws as if the
|
||
endurance of the world through time were the result of building a
|
||
brick wall into the future. Some bricks are simply stacked on top of
|
||
one another, as quantum cycles reproduce themselves in time. But when
|
||
bits of matter interact, the bricks fit together in more complex
|
||
ways, changing the sizes and locations of the bricks in the next row.
|
||
The space on which the wall is being built also plays a role, because
|
||
the sizes of the brick may also change with their locations (as in
|
||
force fields), and the effects of space on their sizes changes with
|
||
the locations of the bricks affecting space (as in changing location
|
||
in a force field). Nature is a master mason, never failing to lay in
|
||
the next layer of bricks according to fixed rules, and thus, there
|
||
are regularities about change as the brick wall is built into the
|
||
future. And the structures formed by them can be quite stable over
|
||
time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order to
|
||
spell out the details of these “rules of quantum masonry,” I will
|
||
describe each of the forms of quantum matter and then take up the
|
||
issue about how they interact with one another. Some of the quantum
|
||
puzzles will be explained along the way, and in the end will, we will
|
||
see how their interactions explain the structure of the atom, the
|
||
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, and the Bell correlations. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
explain the endurance of matter by the cyclic nature of quantum
|
||
events may, however, make it seem that matter is not a substance at
|
||
all. If quantum events are ultimately just the exertion of a force in
|
||
some part of space making some other event occur that is also
|
||
constituted by forces, it is conceivable that quantum matter is just
|
||
a property of parts of space, much like force-field matter. Could
|
||
matter be entirely reducible to space? This is not what we assumed
|
||
when we took spatiomaterialism as the foundation for this ontological
|
||
way of doing philosophy. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
reduction of matter to space is, however, something that ontologists
|
||
should welcome, if it is possible, for it would be just as complete
|
||
as spatiomaterialism, but a simpler, and, thus, better ontological
|
||
explanation of the natural world. It is more or less what Einstein
|
||
was trying to do during the latter part of his life in attempting to
|
||
construct a unified field theory. He wanted to describe matter
|
||
another kind of curvature of spacetime, along with gravitation. If
|
||
something like that comes of this ontological explanation, then
|
||
spatiomaterialism will turn into spatialism.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However, I
|
||
will put this possibility aside. In the first place, we would be
|
||
getting ahead of ourselves to assume at this point that spatialism is
|
||
true. We have yet to see how matter can be explained by cycles of
|
||
quantum events. And second, even if an ontological explanation of
|
||
quantum mechanics like this stands up in the end, it does not seem to
|
||
me that that would make spatialism true. You may be able to reduce
|
||
the inherent motion in space to spatio-temporal geometry, but the
|
||
unit-like nature of quantum events will keep them from being
|
||
reducible to properties in space. Each quantum event occurs over a
|
||
period of time, and since quantum events cannot exist unless the
|
||
whole event occurs, to postulate their existence is tantamount to
|
||
holding that what exists includes entities with a temporal dimension
|
||
to their essential nature. Bits of matter-time may be less
|
||
problematic than spacetime, but in a world in which nothing exists
|
||
but the present moment, they are, strictly speaking, not possible.
|
||
Thus, this unit-like nature can be explained only by postulating the
|
||
existence of a substance with a part-whole relationship of some kind
|
||
that make it appear to be made up indivisible cycles of events.
|
||
Whatever its nature, it basically different from the essential nature
|
||
from space. Space is incapable of explaining the unit-like nature of
|
||
quantum events, because it must exist only at the present moment in
|
||
order to have an inherent motion that flows continuously. The only
|
||
plausible way of explaining the all-or-nothing character of quantum
|
||
events is to postulate another kind of basic substance, distinct from
|
||
space, which can coincide with parts of space, for in that case, we
|
||
can believe that, despite seeming to have a temporal dimension to
|
||
their nature, quantum events also exist only at the present moment.
|
||
There is, however, no need to settle this issue now. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">F<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_13" align="right" hspace="5" width="125" height="85" border="0">orms
|
||
of quantum matter. </font>I will focus first on the nature of quantum
|
||
matter, since force-field matter depends on the existence of the bits
|
||
of quantum matter constituting a particle with rest mass in nearby
|
||
parts of space and it is fairly clear how it can be explained.
|
||
Quantum matter includes electromagnetic waves, material objects with
|
||
rest mass, and their kinetic energy. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
total matter is ultimately equal to the total quantum matter.
|
||
Force-field matter is already counted in the masses of the objects
|
||
exerting the forces, and gravitational waves eventually die out as
|
||
they are converted into other forms of matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
quantity of quantum matter in any region of space is measured by the
|
||
number of quantum events per unit time, for that is equal to the
|
||
quantity of energy, given the definition of “action.” Since we
|
||
will assume that all quantum matter is constituted by quantum events,
|
||
the equivalence of energy and mass by Einstein’s equation, <i>E = mc</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>,
|
||
implies that each unit of mass must be equivalent to a certain number
|
||
of quantum events per second. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
quantity of force-field matter involved in constituting the electric
|
||
charge can be measured as potential energy, that is, in terms of the
|
||
number of quantum events per second that can be converted from it,
|
||
and that quantity must be subtracted from the total quantum cycles
|
||
constituting rest mass. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">After
|
||
describing the nature of each form of quantum matter, I will take up
|
||
the nature of electromagnetic interactions, bringing force-field
|
||
matter back into the picture. But along the way, I will point out how
|
||
this theory explains the peculiar nature of matter at the scale of
|
||
the quantum and solves certain quantum puzzles. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>L<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAEUAAAAQCAMAAAB3EEJfAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpGPjA4MSYqJR17AABzAABmAAAcGBNMAAA9AAAzAAANDAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAKqgzAAAAAiElEQVR4nK3TSQ6AIAwF0AoVahCc9f43tQanjYkU/uIvmvSFpAG6fsgPdFuBlFMgM7eikMvEodHHoBIoSFw6DgmvEikedGhXoNY7GEMjVpziovqotLdsb8VDBKSKQ1S8a+sxKjaBeW5ERMg3ssYDKr5WZU26ckaH8H/5U5Gl5A8oofTDNC+Z2QEK3CmatGOzUwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" name="TtsOtkCLQm_14" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="34" border="0">ight.
|
||
</b></i>Light is the easiest form of matter to explain on the
|
||
assumption that “quantum” refers to elementary events with the
|
||
size indicated by Planck’s constant, for light can be explained as
|
||
being made up of photons, each of which is the size of a quantum.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Light
|
||
was understood as a wave in classical physics. According to Maxwell’s
|
||
equations for electromagnetism, the change in the electric force has
|
||
as its effect a magnetic force, and the change in the magnetic force
|
||
has as its effect an electric force. Thus, the two forces interact,
|
||
and their interaction can couple them in cycles of changing electric
|
||
and magnetic forces that propagate through space at a fixed velocity,
|
||
the velocity of light. Its wave-like nature is apparent in such
|
||
phenomena as diffraction and interference. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As we
|
||
assumed in explaining Einsteinian relativity, the velocity of light
|
||
is explained ontologically by the velocity of the motion inherent in
|
||
space itself. Let us, therefore, think of the electric and magnetic
|
||
forces involved in electromagnetic waves as being carried along with
|
||
the inherent motion in some direction. That will allow us to explain
|
||
electric and magnetic forces as properties of parts of space, except
|
||
for the way that they are coupled together in units as photons (or
|
||
rather aspects of the inherent motion in space). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
particle-like nature of light waves can be explained on the
|
||
assumption that each cycle of electric and magnetic forces is a
|
||
single quantum event that occurs as a whole, if it occurs at all.
|
||
Since these quantum events are cyclic, when one event does occur, it
|
||
is followed, other things being equal, by another quantum event of
|
||
the same kind. But since these quantum events coincide with space by
|
||
way of the inherent motion, the next cycle of electric and magnetic
|
||
forces occupies the next part of space in its direction. As the
|
||
cycles reproduce themselves in time, therefore, they move across
|
||
space, constituting an electromagnetic wave in time and space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
ontological explanation of light accounts for the quantum equations
|
||
used to describe the energy and momentum of photons. Energy is
|
||
proportional to the number of quantum cycles per unit time, and that
|
||
is what the equation for the photon’s energy says: <i>E = hf</i>
|
||
(where <i>f</i> is the frequency of the light). The shorter the
|
||
period of each quantum cycle, the more units of action that can occur
|
||
in a unit of time, and thus, the more energy it carries. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
momentum of the photon can be explained in a parallel way, except
|
||
relative to the direction of space in which the photon is moving. The
|
||
dimensions of the quantum as a unit of action implies that the
|
||
momentum of a quantum cycle is proportional to the number of quantum
|
||
cycles per unit distance (in the direction of motion), and that is
|
||
what the equation for the momentum of the photon says: <i>p =</i> <i>h/</i><font face="Symbol, serif"><i>l</i></font>,
|
||
where <font face="Symbol, serif"><i>l</i></font> is the wavelength of
|
||
the light and <i>1/</i><font face="Symbol, serif"><i>l</i></font> is
|
||
the number of cycles per unit length). In other words, the momentum
|
||
is inversely proportional to the wavelength. Photons with shorter
|
||
wavelengths have more momentum. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since the
|
||
velocity of light is constant, <i>f</i><font face="Symbol, serif"><i>l</i></font> <i>= c
|
||
</i>(where <i>c</i> is the velocity of light), and thus, the energy
|
||
and momentum of the photon are proportional to one another: <i>E = pc</i>.
|
||
In other words, the shorter the photon’s quantum cycle in time and
|
||
space, the higher its energy and momentum, respectively. But since it
|
||
is still the size of a quantum, the decreased size of the event in
|
||
space and time means that the forces involved in each cycle are
|
||
greater (since action is the product of force, space and time). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Since
|
||
each cycle of electric and magnetic forces is a quantum event, no
|
||
part of it can exist unless the whole cycle does. This unit-like
|
||
nature to the events that constitute the existence of a photon is
|
||
explained ontologically by how bits of matter coincide with space,
|
||
and so it depend as much on the nature of space as it does not the
|
||
nature of matter. (More precisely, the energy of the photon depends
|
||
on the bit of matter apart from space, whereas its momentum also
|
||
depends on space, because momentum is a result of the interaction of
|
||
electric and magnetic forces being carried along by the inherent
|
||
motion.) This suggests a straightforward ontological explanation of
|
||
the phenomena that led to the recognition that light is made up of
|
||
particle-like units. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Planck</i>.
|
||
What Planck discovered about blackbody radiation can be explained
|
||
ontologically as a discovery about how photons coincide with the same
|
||
part of space. What he discovered is that photons of different
|
||
frequencies can all coincide with the same part of space as long as
|
||
there their frequencies differ from one another by at least one
|
||
quantum of action per second. This limitation on the frequencies that
|
||
can exist in the same part of space avoids the so-called ultraviolet
|
||
catastrophe, that is, why the total energy of photons at higher
|
||
frequencies does not become infinite. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">On this
|
||
ontological explanation, what coincides with space are not just the
|
||
changing electric and magnetic forces of electromagnetic waves, but
|
||
rather complete cycles of such forces. And since the inherent motion
|
||
contains each quantum of action is part of a wave pattern of a
|
||
certain size that extends though the space in its direction, this
|
||
limitation is a minimum difference that holds for the sizes of the
|
||
wave patterns that can exist in that region of space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though this
|
||
is a limitation on the variety of possible photons that can coincide
|
||
with any part of space, the inherent motion in space is still
|
||
handling a lot of different kinds of photons. In addition to all the
|
||
frequencies of light in any direction that can exist at any part of
|
||
space, photons of each frequency can have different phases (that is,
|
||
different points in space where the cycle begins) as well different
|
||
orientations of spin. Not only must the inherent motion be able to
|
||
carry photons of all these kinds at once in any given direction, but
|
||
it must also be able to carry the complete variety of photons <i>in
|
||
every direction </i>in three-dimensional space. Indeed, at any given
|
||
location it must be able to carry photons of all kinds <i>both ways
|
||
</i>in every direction, and it must do so <i>at every location</i> in
|
||
the region of space <i>all the time</i>. That is just how the parts
|
||
of space are connected (though the inherent motion itself may be
|
||
moving across space and being accelerated in a gravitational field). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Einstein.</i>
|
||
Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect was that in
|
||
order for light to free electrons from matter, the light had to have
|
||
a high enough frequency, because the electron had to receive all the
|
||
energy it needed to overcome the force binding it to the atom from a
|
||
single photon. Lots of low frequency photons would not work. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
particle-like behavior of light is just what would be expected, if
|
||
light is constituted by cycles of quantum events, because in order
|
||
for light to interact at all, a whole quantum event of one kind must
|
||
become a quantum event of another kind, in this case, it is the kind
|
||
of quantum event that constitutes kinetic energy. And a single photon
|
||
can supply the force needed to accelerate the electron, because
|
||
photons with a higher frequency have smaller temporal and spatial
|
||
dimensions and, given that each photon is a quantum of action, the
|
||
forces constituting them must be correspondingly greater.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Compton.
|
||
</i>When a photon does interact, it is the whole photon that
|
||
interacts. When a photon is scattered by an electron, for example, a
|
||
whole photon is absorbed and a whole new photon is generated (one
|
||
that is 180<sup>o</sup> out of phase with the original). The Compton
|
||
effect has a straightforward ontological explanation, because the
|
||
scattering of the high energy photon by an electron, like an elastic
|
||
collision between two material objects, conserves both energy and
|
||
momentum. The mass of the electron limits how much energy and
|
||
momentum can be carried away, and that can be confirmed by measuring
|
||
the direction and wavelength of the reflected photon. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>R<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_15" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="36" border="0">est
|
||
mass. </b></i>Material objects with rest mass are another form of
|
||
matter that was recognized in explaining the truth of classical
|
||
physics, and our reason for thinking that rest mass is just another
|
||
form of the substances that are counted in the principle of the
|
||
conservation of energy was the equivalence of mass and energy (<i>E =
|
||
mc</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>) entailed by Einstein’s special theory of
|
||
relativity. But having set aside force-field matter, we are now
|
||
explaining those forms of matter as forms of quantum matter, and that
|
||
requires us to hold that material objects with rest mass are
|
||
constituted by quantum events in some way. And there is an obvious
|
||
way to do so. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
rest mass of a particle can be explained as the number of cycles of
|
||
quantum rest mass events per second, just as for the energy of
|
||
photons. Such quantum cycles would, of course, have to coincide with
|
||
space in a different way from photons, because objects with rest mass
|
||
can remain at rest (or more precisely, have a constant velocity
|
||
relative to the inherent motion in space). The simplest way to
|
||
explain why such objects can be at rest is to hold that the quantum
|
||
cycles constituting them go around in circles (or some such closed
|
||
path), instead of moving across space with the inherent motion like
|
||
photons. Moreover, since such quantum events would follow a closed
|
||
path, like a circle, which brings the action back to where it began
|
||
to start the next cycle, it is clear how quantum rest mass cycles can
|
||
succeed one another in time. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">In
|
||
order to show that objects with rest mass can be explained as form of
|
||
quantum matter, it will be necessary to show how all the basic
|
||
particles recognized by physics can be explained by quantum rest mass
|
||
cycles in this way. But that is a task that will not be taken up
|
||
until the next chapter on contemporary physics, </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaLeCosBasObj.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Cosmology:
|
||
Basic Objects</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.
|
||
For purposes of explaining quantum mechanics proper, we shall need
|
||
only three kind of basic particles with rest mass: electrons, protons
|
||
and neutrons. They are the near basic constituents of ordinary
|
||
material objects of all kinds, and together with the electromagnetic
|
||
force, including the photon, they can explain all the processes that
|
||
occur in ordinary objects, from atoms to human beings. That is the
|
||
range of phenomena covered by the quantum mechanics of
|
||
electromagnetism. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Such
|
||
ordinary phenomena do not include, of course, the sun, radioactivity,
|
||
nuclear power and the like. These other phenomena depend on
|
||
interactions among more basic particles than nucleons and their
|
||
electromagnetic interactions with electrons. These more basic
|
||
particles are recognized by physics, and they must all be explained
|
||
as cycles of quantum events (and how quantum cycles coincide with
|
||
space) in order for this ontological explanation of quantum matter to
|
||
be complete. There is a way of doing that in which even the electron
|
||
does not turn out to be basic, as explained in </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaLeCosBasObj.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Cosmology:
|
||
Basic Objects</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.
|
||
</span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">For
|
||
the present, we shall simply take it for granted that electrons and
|
||
nucleons can be explained ontologically as objects constituted by
|
||
quantum rest mass cycles. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Visible
|
||
light is made up of photons with frequencies of about 10<sup>15</sup>
|
||
cycles per second and energies about a few electron volts. Electrons
|
||
have an energy of about one half million electron volts, and thus,
|
||
the frequency of its quantum rest mass cycles must be on the order of
|
||
10<sup>21</sup> cycles per second. And since protons have a rest mass
|
||
about two thousand times that of electrons (or about 938 million
|
||
electron volts), the frequency of their quantum rest mass cycles must
|
||
be on the order of 10<sup>24</sup> cycles per second. However,
|
||
nucleons have a complex structure, and on this ontological
|
||
explanation of them, their quantum rest mass cycles do not follow a
|
||
circular pathway. It is a more complex pathway that may involve three
|
||
or six quantum events to complete. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Electrons
|
||
and protons carry an electric charge, as well as rest mass. The
|
||
conservation of electric charge is explained by the gauge field
|
||
theory for electromagnetism, and though what I will say about the
|
||
electric charge is compatible with that theory, I will not try to
|
||
explain it until we take up the basic particles. (See </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaLeCosGaugeField.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Change:
|
||
Basic Objects: Gauge Field</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">.)
|
||
We shall just take the electric charge for grated. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>K<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_16" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="34" border="0">inetic
|
||
Energy. </b></i>The assumption that kinetic energy is a form of
|
||
matter was made in order to explain ontologically the basic laws of
|
||
classical physics. We explained the principle of the conservation of
|
||
mass and energy ontologically by the endurance of material substance,
|
||
and that forced us to recognize that kinetic energy is a form of
|
||
matter. What needs to be shown here is how kinetic energy matter can
|
||
be explained as a form of quantum matter.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
received view is that the motion of a material object is nothing but
|
||
its change of location in space over time. But that is not possible
|
||
for an ontological explanation of the world that explains change by
|
||
the endurance of substances through time, that is, as “real
|
||
change,” because it must assume that nothing exists but what exists
|
||
at the present moment. However, if nothing exists but the present
|
||
moment, material objects are never in motion, and so wherein does its
|
||
motion consist? To call motion “instantaneous velocity” is merely
|
||
to name what needs to be explained. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus,
|
||
ontology must recognize that the motion of objects with rest mass is
|
||
not just their change of location over time, but rather is due to
|
||
another form of matter that endures through time. That is, we must
|
||
think of motion as an additional bit of matter that coincides with
|
||
the material object and the part of space where the object is
|
||
located. But it is a different form of matter, because it coincides
|
||
with space in a way that moves the rest mass along in a certain
|
||
direction at a certain rate. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is to
|
||
resurrect the notion that inertia is a kind of force that keeps the
|
||
object with rest mass moving, and it explains, as we shall see, the
|
||
difference between the rest mass of a material object and its
|
||
inertial mass. But since heat is known to be the kinetic energy of
|
||
material objects at the micro level, it is also, in effect, to
|
||
vindicate the notion that heat is a caloric fluid, as we shall see in
|
||
explaining <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Material global
|
||
regularities</font>. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>De
|
||
Broglie’s equation. </i>Kinetic energy can be explained in terms of
|
||
quantum cycles by supposing that there are quantum events that change
|
||
the locations of material objects by a certain distance in a certain
|
||
time. Newton’s first law of motion requires that material objects
|
||
in motion continue in motion, and in order to explain why that law is
|
||
true, we assumed that kinetic energy matter endures through time like
|
||
any other form of material substance. But now we are explaining how
|
||
quantum matter endures through time by the cyclic nature of quantum
|
||
events, and so we must explain kinetic energy as a series of cyclic
|
||
changes, each step of which can exist only as a whole. Let us call
|
||
them “quantum kinetic cycles.” They will explain ontologically
|
||
the truth of the de Broglie equations for the momentum and kinetic
|
||
energy of particles with rest mass, which parallel the equations for
|
||
photons.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">De Broglie
|
||
first proposed that particles with rest mass have a wave-like nature,
|
||
much like photons. His equation, <i>p = h/</i><font face="Symbol, serif"><i>l</i></font>,
|
||
which was derived from the equation for photons, described the
|
||
momentum of the particle as being inversely proportional to its
|
||
wavelength, and that can be explained ontologically by the nature if
|
||
the cyclic quantum events that constitute kinetic energy. The
|
||
wavelength of the particle can be explained ontologically as the
|
||
distance that the quantum kinetic cycle moves the particle during
|
||
each kinetic cycle. And we can explain ontologically why the de
|
||
Broglie equation is true, if we assume that for a unit mass, the
|
||
length of the quantum kinetic cycle in the direction of its motion is
|
||
inversely proportional to the momentum of the material object. Like
|
||
photons, therefore, momentum is proportional to the number of quantum
|
||
kinetic cycles that occur within a unit of space (in the direction of
|
||
motion). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Just as the
|
||
momentum is related to the spatial dimensions of the quantum events
|
||
constituting kinetic energy matter, so the kinetic energy itself is
|
||
related to their temporal dimension. The kinetic energy of the
|
||
particle is inversely proportional to the period of its quantum
|
||
kinetic cycle, so that its kinetic energy would be proportional to
|
||
the number of cycles that occur in a unit of time, also like photons.
|
||
In this case, <i>E = hf</i>, where <i>f</i> is the frequency of the
|
||
kinetic cycle, or the inverse of its temporal size. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In sum, the
|
||
faster the particle with rest mass moves, the shorter the distance
|
||
covered by each quantum kinetic cycle, and the shorter the period
|
||
required for each quantum kinetic cycle that moves it across space.
|
||
But since each quantum kinetic cycle is a quantum of action, the
|
||
shorter its temporal and spatial dimensions, the stronger the force
|
||
that is acting to move the rest mass across space in each cycle, that
|
||
is, the more inertia it has. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Quantitative
|
||
relationship of momentum and kinetic energy. </i>The cycles of
|
||
quantum events that are responsible for the motion of objects with
|
||
rest mass explain their momentum and energy, therefore, in much the
|
||
same way as the momentum and energy of photons. But there is an
|
||
important difference. In photons, there is a constant relationship
|
||
between energy and momentum (described by the Einsteinian equation,
|
||
<i>E = pc</i>), but no such relationship holds for
|
||
particles with rest mass. Unlike photons, rest masses can have
|
||
various velocities in any direction, and their momentum and kinetic
|
||
energy do not have a constant relationship. On this ontological
|
||
explanation, that means that the temporal and spatial dimensions of
|
||
the quantum kinetic cycles by which the rest masses change location
|
||
in space do not have a constant relationship. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">From the
|
||
equations for classical physics, we know that the momentum of a
|
||
moving object is proportional to its velocity (<i>p = mv</i>),
|
||
while the energy of its motion is proportional to the square of the
|
||
velocity (<i>E = ½mv</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>), and as
|
||
promised when the laws of classical physics were being reduced to
|
||
spatiomaterialism, this kinetic theory of matter explains why
|
||
momentum and energy are related in this way. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="MomentumKE" align="bottom" width="476" height="252" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To go
|
||
faster, a particle with rest mass must have shorter quantum kinetic
|
||
cycles in space, because their wavelength varies inversely with
|
||
momentum. But with greater speed, therefore, quantum kinetic cycles
|
||
carry the particle a shorter distance across space during each
|
||
quantum event. In order for the velocity to be higher, the particle
|
||
must cover more space in the same length of time, and that means that
|
||
the <i>period </i>of each quantum kinetic cycle in time must decrease
|
||
even faster than its length decreases in space. In fact, it is only
|
||
possible if the <i>period </i>of the quantum kinetic cycle decreases
|
||
in proportion to the <i>square </i>of velocity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">For
|
||
example, if the velocity of a unit mass is doubled, the wavelength of
|
||
each quantum kinetic cycle is cut in half. But that means that the
|
||
period of each quantum kinetic cycle must be one-fourth as long as
|
||
the previous quantum kinetic cycles, for otherwise the object will
|
||
not travel twice as far in the same period of time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus, the
|
||
way kinetic quantum events must fit together in space over time in
|
||
order to explain the motion of particles with rest mass explains why
|
||
the kinetic energy increases with the square of the velocity, while
|
||
momentum increases directly with velocity. It is a result of how the
|
||
change in the spatial dimensions of quantum kinetic cycles must
|
||
affect their temporal dimensions in order for momentum to be
|
||
inversely proportional to their de Broglie wavelength. (And the
|
||
reason that the kinetic energy of a particle is not equal to the
|
||
frequency of its quantum kinetic cycles, but only half, is that only
|
||
half that much energy is required to accelerate a particle to that
|
||
“frequency.” More energy is required to accelerate objects at
|
||
higher velocities, as we noted in explaining why the gravitational
|
||
time dilation varies with altitude in a gravitational field, not with
|
||
the strength of the force.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Rest
|
||
mass. </i>This description of quantum kinetic cycles has assumed that
|
||
the particle being moved has one unit of rest mass, but particles of
|
||
different kinds have different masses and according to classical
|
||
physics the mass of the particle helps determine its momentum. Its
|
||
momentum is the product of its mass and velocity. For example, when
|
||
two material objects have the same velocity, but one has twice the
|
||
mass of the other, the one has twice the momentum and twice the
|
||
kinetic energy of the other object. This can be explained
|
||
ontologically on the assumption that the particle’s motion is due
|
||
to quantum kinetic cycles, but it will require us to take into
|
||
account the relationship between the quantum cycles making up the
|
||
rest mass and the quantum cycle constituting its motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We are
|
||
assuming that the rest mass of a particle is proportional to the
|
||
frequency of the quantum cycles constituting its rest mass. In an
|
||
object with twice the rest mass, there are twice as many quantum rest
|
||
mass cycles per second. Though rest mass and kinetic energy are both
|
||
a series of cycles of quantum events, and though the total matter is
|
||
equal to the total of both kinds of quantum cycles per second, they
|
||
are different forms of matter and each has an existence that is
|
||
distinct from the other. But in order to explain the role of rest
|
||
mass in determining momentum, we must assume that the quantum rest
|
||
mass cycles determine a scaling factor for quantum kinetic cycles.
|
||
For example, when two material objects have the same velocity, but
|
||
one has twice as many quantum rest mass cycles as the other, the one
|
||
must have quantum kinetic cycles whose wavelengths and periods that
|
||
are half the other object. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
scaling factor would explain why the momentum and kinetic energy of
|
||
particles is proportional to the rest mass. But it is only a scaling
|
||
factor for the quantum kinetic cycles required to move the object
|
||
across space. The period of its rest mass cycles are not changed by
|
||
the motion of the particle with rest mass. Quantum kinetic cycles are
|
||
additional quantum events whose size depends on how many rest mass
|
||
cycles occur during each unit of time as well as how far the object
|
||
is moved during each unit of time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Inertial
|
||
mass.</i> This is only a first approximation to the explanation of
|
||
how the size of the quantum kinetic cycles depend on mass as well as
|
||
velocity, because kinetic energy is an additional quantity of matter
|
||
that coincides with the object with rest mass and that kinetic matter
|
||
must itself be moved along with the object with rest mass. Thus,
|
||
since the total number of quantum cycles per second that is being
|
||
moved along by the kinetic matter includes both the quantum rest mass
|
||
cycles and the quantum kinetic cycles of the objects, the scaling
|
||
factor for quantum kinetic cycles must depend not only on the total
|
||
rest mass cycles but also on the total quantum kinetic cycles. Let us
|
||
call that combined total quantum cycles the “inertial mass” of
|
||
the material object, to distinguish it from the rest mass. And let as
|
||
refine our ontological explanation of momentum and kinetic energy to
|
||
make them proportional to the inertial mass of the material object,
|
||
rather than its rest mass.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The rate
|
||
for the conversion of matter between mass and energy is given by
|
||
Einstein’s formula, <i>E = mc</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>, and
|
||
the simplest explanation is that it describes the rate at which
|
||
additional quantum kinetic cycle contribute to the scaling factor.
|
||
That fixes the number of quantum rest mass cycles for each unit of
|
||
mass and constrains the explanation of rest mass by quantum cycles. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[However,
|
||
the relationship may be more complex. It is possible that the quantum
|
||
rest mass cycles constituting particles have a special nature
|
||
(presumably because of how they depend on weakons and neutrinos and
|
||
the unique structures that result), and each quantum rest mass cycle
|
||
contribute more to total mass than a single quantum kinetic cycles.
|
||
Let us proceed, however, on the simple assumption.]</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[There is,
|
||
however, no reason to doubt that the quantum kinetic cycles are
|
||
simply added to the quantum rest mass cycles in determining the total
|
||
mass (or energy, if you will) of the object. To be sure, the
|
||
Einsteinian formula, <i>E</i><sup><i>2</i></sup> <i>= p</i><sup><i>2</i></sup><i>c</i><sup><i>2</i></sup> <i>+ m</i><sub><i>o</i></sub><sup><i>2</i></sup><i>c</i><sup><i>4</i></sup>,
|
||
suggests that the contributions of rest mass ( <i>m</i><sub><i>o</i></sub><sup><i>2</i></sup><i>c</i><sup><i>4</i></sup>)
|
||
and the object’s motion (<i>p</i><sup><i>2</i></sup><i>c</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>)
|
||
to the total energy (<i>E</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>) is more like
|
||
orthogonal components of total energy as a vector sum. But this
|
||
formula represents the object’s motion in terms of its momentum,
|
||
that is, its spatial aspect, not its total energy. Energy is the
|
||
temporal aspect of the quantum cycle, and both kinds of energy are
|
||
included in this total. Furthermore, this equation merely describes
|
||
the dynamic invariant that holds among inertial frames corresponding
|
||
to the kinematic separation <i>s</i> (where <i>s</i><sup><i>2</i></sup> <i>= c</i><sup><i>2</i></sup><i>t</i><sup><i>2</i></sup> – <i>x</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>,
|
||
and the parallel is <i>m</i><sub><i>o</i></sub><sup><i>2</i></sup><i>c</i><sup><i>4</i></sup> <i>= E</i><sup><i>2</i></sup> <i>- p</i><sup><i>2</i></sup><i>c</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>).
|
||
But on the spatiomaterialist explanation of special theory of
|
||
relativity, the tradeoff between total energy and momentum (in the
|
||
temporal and spatial dimensions) that makes inertial frames
|
||
equivalent in this way is just an appearance. Not only rest mass, but
|
||
also the total energy and momentum have absolute values, though they
|
||
cannot be determined empirically, that is, measured.]</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">This
|
||
ontological explanation of inertial mass would account for the
|
||
Lorentz distortion in the masses of material objects with a high
|
||
velocity relative to the ether, or what is called the “relativistic
|
||
mass increase” (which was promised in </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaLbStrRelMass.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="2" style="font-size: 10pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Change:
|
||
Special theory of relativity</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">).
|
||
The reason that inertial mass increases with velocity is that the
|
||
total mass of the material object includes both its rest mass (the
|
||
quantum cycles constituting its mass when it is at rest relative to
|
||
the inherent motion) and the mass of its kinetic energy (the quantum
|
||
kinetic cycles that give the object a velocity relative to the
|
||
inherent motion).</span></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus, not
|
||
only is more energy required to accelerate a material object by a
|
||
fixed amount at higher velocities relative to the ether because of
|
||
the laws of classical physics (with higher velocity the force has to
|
||
be applied over a longer distance in the same period of time to
|
||
increase its velocity the same way), but more energy is required to
|
||
accelerate a material objects by a fixed amount at very high
|
||
velocities because of the relativistic mass increase entailed by
|
||
Einstein’s special theory of relativity (with very high velocities,
|
||
the mass of the kinetic energy that must be accelerated along with
|
||
its rest mass becomes significant). As the material object approaches
|
||
the velocity of light, the mass of the kinetic energy matter (and,
|
||
thus, the inertial mass) becomes infinite. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Interference
|
||
phenomenon. </i>Finally, this explanation of kinetic energy as a form
|
||
of quantum matter affords an explanation of interference phenomena
|
||
(and diffraction) with material objects, that is, the phenomenon that
|
||
most clearly demonstrates the wave-like nature of particles.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order
|
||
for quantum kinetic cycles to explain the wave-like nature of moving
|
||
material objects, we must take into account the role of the inherent
|
||
motion. Quantum kinetic cycles move objects with inertial mass
|
||
relative to the inherent motion in space, but they are usually much
|
||
slower than the motion that sweeps each point both ways in every
|
||
direction. Let us assume, therefore, that as that motion sweeps
|
||
through a material object in any direction, it picks up the
|
||
<i>wavelength</i> of its quantum kinetic cycle and lays out, in the
|
||
space beyond it, waves with the same wavelength (until it runs into
|
||
another object). Since the wavelength varies inversely with the
|
||
product of the inertial mass and velocity, the waves laid out in
|
||
space by the inherent motion, in effect, broadcast information about
|
||
the particle’s momentum and phase of its quantum kinetic cycle in
|
||
every direction in the ether. (Since the inherent motion flows in all
|
||
directions, waves are laid out in all directions indicating its
|
||
momentum in each direction, including those opposite to the direction
|
||
of the particle itself.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order to
|
||
explain how the inherent motion picks up the wavelength of the
|
||
quantum kinetic cycle, we must assume that it interacts with the
|
||
quantum kinetic cycle as a whole. It is as if the inherent motion
|
||
timed how long it took to pass through the whole kinetic cycle and
|
||
laid down a mark in space each time the same period had passed again.
|
||
But notice that this period is <i>not </i>the period of the quantum
|
||
kinetic cycle itself. The material object takes much longer to cross
|
||
the distance covered in a single quantum kinetic cycle than the
|
||
motion inherent in space, and thus, the inherent motion will take
|
||
many trips across the distance covered by each quantum kinetic cycle
|
||
before it is succeeded by another quantum kinetic cycle. This effect
|
||
on the inherent motion would not be possible, if the kinetic cycle
|
||
did not have a quantum nature, existing as a whole or not at all, for
|
||
it must interact with both ends of the path across which the material
|
||
object is being moved during each cycle. In other words, the kinetic
|
||
energy, which is inversely proportional to the period of the quantum
|
||
kinetic cycle, is <i>not </i>broadcast to other regions of space by
|
||
the motion inherent in space. Only the momentum is. And that is
|
||
fitting, since momentum is the spatial aspect of quantum kinetic
|
||
cycles, whereas energy is the temporal aspect. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order to
|
||
explain the interference phenomenon exhibited by objects with
|
||
inertial mass in the two-slit experiment, we must recognize that the
|
||
inherent motion sweeping through a material object in each direction,
|
||
picking up the wavelength of its quantum kinetic cycle, is part of a
|
||
wave front. When particles with a certain velocity are moving toward
|
||
the barrier with two, closely spaced slits, some particles pass
|
||
through, and their collisions with the wall lying beyond the barrier
|
||
indicates that the two pathways are interfering with one another like
|
||
waves. The particles collide with the distant wall only along certain
|
||
fringes, and not between them. This would be just what is expected,
|
||
<i>if we assume that the particle tends to move along the path of
|
||
waves that have been laid out by the inherent motion</i>. The wave
|
||
fronts broadcast by the particle are intercepted by the barrier
|
||
except for the two slits. The inherent motion stops laying out
|
||
wavelengths in space where it is intercepted by the barrier, but it
|
||
continues laying them out where it flows through the slits. Thus, on
|
||
the other side of the barrier, there are two wave fronts laying out
|
||
the same wavelengths, one emanating from each slit, and they
|
||
interfere with one another like light waves. Assuming that the
|
||
particle tends to fall in step with the waves that have always
|
||
already been laid out in the space between the barrier and the
|
||
distance wall, therefore, its path is diverted away from paths on
|
||
which the wave fronts interfere destructively toward those paths on
|
||
which the wave fronts interfere constructively. That is, the particle
|
||
always tends to be where its wave front is strongest. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If we use
|
||
the crude picture of quantum cycles as having a definite starting
|
||
point and ending point, we can think of the particle as being
|
||
subjected to a force at the completion of each quantum kinetic cycle,
|
||
if it finds itself in a position where the waves being laid out from
|
||
the two slit are interfering destructively, which changes its
|
||
direction slightly. But when it ends a quantum kinetic cycle where
|
||
the waves from the two slits interfere constructively, it simply goes
|
||
with the flow. Thus, the effect is to channel the particle along a
|
||
certain path way. The actual path will vary from particle to particle
|
||
with the same momentum depending on the direction its emerges from
|
||
the slit it passes through, and so it results in a fringe of more and
|
||
less likely points of interception by the distant wall. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In other
|
||
words, in both photons and material objects, the cause of
|
||
interference phenomena is the inherent motion. In the case of
|
||
photons, the inherent motion carrying the relevant wavelength goes
|
||
through both slits setting up a pattern of spacetime cells where they
|
||
interfere constructively, and the direction of the photon is diverted
|
||
slightly in those regions. It is the same in the case of particles
|
||
with inertial mass, except that the relevant wavelength is due to the
|
||
quantum kinetic cycles of the particle. In both cases, therefore, the
|
||
interference phenomena also occurs when particles (photons or objects
|
||
with rest mass) are sent through the slits one at a time. It depends
|
||
on the geometry of the inherent motion moving in certain directions
|
||
laying out a waves of a certain length in space. And in both cases,
|
||
if one of the slits is blocked — or even if an apparatus is set up
|
||
that can detect which slit a particle goes through — the
|
||
interference effects disappear. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Schrödinger’s
|
||
equation.</i> The quantitative adequacy of the wave pattern laid out
|
||
by the inherent motion to explain interference and similar quantum
|
||
phenomena has already been demonstrated, in effect, by David Bohm
|
||
(1993), for this role of the inherent motion is an ontological
|
||
explanation of what he calls the “quantum potential.” </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What
|
||
happens in these experiments on particles with rest mass can be
|
||
described by the Schrödinger wavefunction, and Bohm shows
|
||
mathematically how such a wavefunction can be divided into a part
|
||
that is due to the causally relevant factors described by classical
|
||
physics and another part which he calls the “quantum potential.”
|
||
The quantum potential is a rather strange force, because unlike
|
||
classical forces, its strength does not decline with distance. The
|
||
quantum force can be quite strong, but its casual role does not come
|
||
from its strength, but rather from its spatial structure. Bohm
|
||
describes the quantum potential as “active information,” for he
|
||
assumes that the particle moves with its own energy and momentum,
|
||
while the quantum potential merely <i>informs </i>it about how to do
|
||
so in detail. The particle has a definite position and momentum at
|
||
each moment, but its classically determined path is affected by the
|
||
quantum potential that exists along with it. The Schrödinger
|
||
wavefunction holds for all particles with the same momentum in the
|
||
two-slit experiment, but the effect of the quantum potential on any
|
||
particular particle cannot be predicted, because it depends on a
|
||
so-called “hidden variable”. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The quantum
|
||
potential is the key to Bohm’s explanation of how the Schrödinger
|
||
wavefunction can be understood as referring to a fully deterministic
|
||
process, and this ontological explanation of interference phenomena
|
||
is an example of how spatiomaterialism would interpret what Bohm
|
||
means by the quantum potential. The quantum potential describes the
|
||
waves laid out in space by the inherent motion for any relevant
|
||
wavelength of kinetic quantum cycles or photons. The effect of the
|
||
waves laid out by the inherent motion makes the quantum potential
|
||
look like “active information” (or a “pilot wave,” as de
|
||
Broglie called it), because the particle follows the nearest path to
|
||
its classically determined path in which the waves coming from
|
||
various directions reinforce, avoiding those in which they cancel
|
||
out. But to explain the quantum potential by the inherent motion is
|
||
to disagree with Bohm on one point, for he holds that the quantum
|
||
potential is simply a manifestation of a “nonlocality” about what
|
||
happens that simply exists in the quantum system and does not depend
|
||
on anything traveling across space over time. But on this ontological
|
||
theory, it is due to the inherent motion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Furthermore,
|
||
the inherent motion explanation of the quantum potential makes it
|
||
possible to hold that the hidden variable, which determines how any
|
||
particular particle is affected by the quantum potential described by
|
||
the wavefunction, is the particular phase of its quantum kinetic
|
||
cycle. That is, any particular particle has a definite position and
|
||
momentum at the beginning and end of its quantum kinetic cycle, and
|
||
the Schrödinger wavefunction describes precisely what happens to it
|
||
as a result of the quantum potential. But it is not possible to
|
||
measure which phase any particular particle has, and since that
|
||
wavefunction also describes what happens to all other possible
|
||
particles with the same momentum (the complex numbers enable it to
|
||
take all the different possible phases into account), the outcome can
|
||
be predicted only probabilistically. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>S<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_17" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="59" border="0">olutions
|
||
to quantum puzzles.</b></font> The nature of the three forms of
|
||
quantum matter has explained several quantum puzzles, and Bohm’s
|
||
interpretation of the Schrödinger wavefunction points the way to a
|
||
solution of those that remain. We have seen how both photons and
|
||
particles with rest mass have both a wave-like and particle-like
|
||
nature, though they are fundamentally different forms of matter on
|
||
this explanation and have fundamentally different explanations.
|
||
Photons are waves that have a particle-like nature because each such
|
||
bit of matter is a complete cycle of quantum events, whereas
|
||
particles with rest mass have a wave-like nature because their motion
|
||
is constituted by another form of matter attached to the rest mass
|
||
that endures through time as a series of cycles of quantum events.
|
||
This points the way to a certain kind of ontological explanation of
|
||
quantum mechanics, and in order to test its adequacy, let us consider
|
||
how it would handle the three quantum puzzles: the structure of the
|
||
atom, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, and the Bell
|
||
correlations.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">S<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_18" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="31" border="0">tructure
|
||
of the atom.</font> Bohm’s interpretation of the Schrödinger
|
||
equation is the key an ontological explanation of the structure of
|
||
that atom. Schrödinger’s equation determines a wavefunction for
|
||
the conditions that hold in atoms, with a positively charged nucleus
|
||
surrounded by electrons (but since it is too complex to solve when
|
||
many electrons are involved, each electron is usually treated
|
||
separately, taking the mean position of the other electrons as
|
||
boundary conditions). The time-independent Schrödinger wavefunction
|
||
for the atom has an amplitude for the electron that varies with
|
||
locations in space, and as Max Born suggested, the square of that
|
||
amplitude (when normalized) in any region of space can be interpreted
|
||
as the probability of finding an electron located there. The
|
||
wavefunction describes various orbitals, or regions of space relative
|
||
to the nucleus where two electrons (with opposite orientations of
|
||
spin) are most likely to be found. This is the structure that
|
||
explains the periodic table of elements and is used to explain
|
||
chemical bonds among atoms. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
orbitals of the atom are identified by quantum numbers, such as the
|
||
principle quantum number (indicating the energy levels: <i>n = 1, 2,
|
||
3 . .</i>), the orbital angular momentum quantum number (<i>l = 0, 1,
|
||
2, . . </i>), and the magnetic quantum number (<i>m, </i>which
|
||
determines the orientation of the orbital angular momentum as a
|
||
magnetic moment it has in a magnetic field imposed in some
|
||
direction). Electrons also have an intrinsic spin quantum number, <i>s
|
||
= ½</i>, and two electrons, with opposite orientations of spin can
|
||
occupy each orbital. Here is a rough description of the possible
|
||
orbitals. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Electrons
|
||
occupy shells, corresponding to different energy levels, and in the
|
||
lowest energy shell (<i>n = 1</i>), there is only one
|
||
orbital (the <i>s </i>orbital), which can contain two electrons (with
|
||
opposite intrinsic spin). It has no orbital angular momentum (<i>l = 0</i>).
|
||
The probability of finding the electron in the s orbital is highest
|
||
at the center of the nucleus, and the probability of finding it
|
||
farther away falls off exponentially. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In the
|
||
second shell (<i>n = 2</i>), with the next higher permitted
|
||
energy, there is not only an <i>s </i>orbital, but also three
|
||
different <i>p </i>orbitals. The <i>p </i>orbitals correspond to
|
||
electrons having an orbital angular momentum (<i>l = 1</i>,
|
||
as if they were in orbit around the nucleus), and each such orbital
|
||
has a node running through the nucleus, indicating that a <i>p</i>
|
||
electron will never be found to be located where the nucleus is.
|
||
Moreover, in the plane in which it has its orbital angular momentum,
|
||
the real (that is, non-complex) component of the wavefunction’s
|
||
amplitude has the <i>p </i>electron located in one or another region
|
||
on opposite sides of the nucleus, that is, 180<sup>o</sup> apart.
|
||
Thus, since there are three <i>p </i>orbitals at the second energy
|
||
level, atoms in which the second shell of electrons is full have
|
||
(real valued) orbitals arranged in 3-D space that look like three,
|
||
mutually perpendicular barbells. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In the
|
||
third shell, at the next energy level, there is another s orbital,
|
||
three p orbitals, and five d orbitals with a more complex geometrical
|
||
structure, and so on through the energy levels of the atom. Since
|
||
each orbital can contain two electrons (with opposite intrinsic spin
|
||
orientations), the number of protons in the nucleus determines the
|
||
structure of the lowest energy atom of each elemental kind. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
order to explain the structure of the atom ontologically, we need to
|
||
recognize that it is constituted by three forms of matter and an
|
||
interaction between them that can be seen as involving something in
|
||
the nature of a photon (that is, virtual photons). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Rest
|
||
mass matter.</i> The particles with rest mass include the neutrons
|
||
and protons that make up the nucleus as well as the electrons. But
|
||
each proton and electron carries an electric charge, which is a form
|
||
of force-field matter that helps constitute each particle, though as
|
||
we have seen, the quantity of such matter is already counted in the
|
||
rest masses of the particles. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Kinetic
|
||
energy matter.</i> Both the nucleus and the electrons are in motion
|
||
as a result of their interaction, but the nucleus is so much more
|
||
massive than the electrons that its quantum kinetic energy cycles are
|
||
very small compared to those of electrons (and can be ignored in
|
||
estimating quantities). Bohr assumed that electrons are in motion
|
||
relative to the nucleus in order to explain the structure of the
|
||
hydrogen atom, and despite doubts about electrons following
|
||
determinate trajectories like classical material objects, it is clear
|
||
that electrons have some kind of motion. (Electrons must move in
|
||
order to have orbital angular momentum, and unless electrons in the s
|
||
orbital had some kind of motion, there would be no explanation of how
|
||
there could be s orbitals at higher energy levels.) Thus, according
|
||
to this ontological explanation of the forms of matter, the electrons
|
||
bound to the nucleus in an atom must have kinetic matter in addition
|
||
to their rest mass matter, that is, the electrons are moved around by
|
||
quantum kinetic cycles. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Force-field
|
||
matter.</i> Since protons and electrons carry opposite electric
|
||
charges, they jointly impose a force field on the part of space
|
||
occupied by the atom. The forces that these particles exert on one
|
||
another change how they move, and the attraction of positive and
|
||
negative charges is great enough to bind the electrons to the nucleus
|
||
(with the negative potential energy representing the loss of some
|
||
force-field matter that was counted in their rest masses as
|
||
independent objects). But part of the force-field matter that the
|
||
particles have given up still exists in the atom as the kinetic
|
||
energy matter by which the electrons (and the nucleus) move across
|
||
space as time passes, and the motion of electrons relative to the
|
||
nucleus entails a change in the force field that is jointly imposed
|
||
by them. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Virtual
|
||
photons.</i> The interaction between these particles is a process
|
||
that is continually converting potential energy into kinetic energy
|
||
and kinetic energy into potential energy, that is, converting matter
|
||
between force-field matter and quantum kinetic cycles. Electrons (and
|
||
the nucleus) are continually either giving up force-field matter and
|
||
acquiring kinetic energy matter or giving up kinetic energy matter
|
||
and acquiring force-field matter, and such transfers of matter are
|
||
represented in the gauge field theory for electrodynamics as bosons,
|
||
called "virtual photons." </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
structure of the atom can be explained by the quantum nature of the
|
||
kinetic energy matter of the particles with rest mass and the gauge
|
||
bosons that transfer momentum and energy between them and force-field
|
||
matter. Both the changes in the locations of the particles and the
|
||
changes in the motion of the particles occur in a step like way,
|
||
because they both involve quantum events. That can explain the
|
||
structure of the atom, because those quantum events must fit together
|
||
neatly in the spatio-temporal geometry determined by the inherent
|
||
motion in space in order for them all to coincide with the same part
|
||
of space. It is as if the quantum events constituting the atom were
|
||
spatio-temporal bricks, and the existence of an atom were a result of
|
||
their fitting together both spatially and temporally like a brick
|
||
wall being built into the future. The masonry is so neat and well
|
||
organized that the wall can be built indefinitely high, making the
|
||
atom stable. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The quantum
|
||
nature of kinetic energy matter means, as we are conceiving it in our
|
||
possibly too crude way, that electrons (and nucleus) change location
|
||
in a step-like way, that is, covering some whole distance in a period
|
||
of time as a single, indivisible event. It is as if the electron must
|
||
first complete an entire quantum kinetic cycle before it can change
|
||
its momentum, and when it does change momentum, it must complete
|
||
another complete quantum cycle before it can change again. Thus, only
|
||
at certain locations and at certain moments does the electron change
|
||
how it is moving. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Any changes
|
||
that occur in an electron’s motion depends on the electric forces
|
||
being exerted by all the electrons and protons, that is, on the field
|
||
that they jointly constitute (because they are all made partly of
|
||
force-field matter). These forces cause electrons to change how they
|
||
move (that is, change their momentum), and that depends on some kind
|
||
of (virtual) photon which gives the electron momentum and energy or
|
||
takes it away. But on this model, such interactions occur only at the
|
||
end of each quantum kinetic cycle, and it is a step-like change that
|
||
determines the nature of the next quantum kinetic cycle. The quantum
|
||
nature of the process makes the quantity of the change clear, because
|
||
according to Newton’s laws of motion, the amount of energy and
|
||
momentum that is transferred to the electron each time would depend
|
||
on how much of energy and momentum the electron picked up from the
|
||
force field matter in space during its previous quantum kinetic
|
||
cycle. The change in the electron’s kinetic energy would depend on
|
||
the <i>distance </i>it covered in the force field during the last
|
||
kinetic event, and the change in the electron’s momentum (including
|
||
its change of direction) would depend on the period spent being
|
||
subject to the force field during the last quantum kinetic cycle. (Or
|
||
more precisely, since the strength of the force varies over that
|
||
distance and period, the change in energy would be the integral of
|
||
the force over that distance, and the change in the electron’s
|
||
momentum would be the integral of the force over that period of
|
||
time). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This way of
|
||
thinking about the quantum nature of the kinetic cycles may be an
|
||
overly crude way of portraying the electromagnetic interactions, but
|
||
the step-like changes bring out how the interaction involves not just
|
||
the electron, but a complete quantum event making up its kinetic
|
||
matter. The change occurs in a cyclic fashion, in which the last
|
||
quantum kinetic cycle combines with the force-field matter to
|
||
determine how much the next quantum kinetic cycle differs in momentum
|
||
and energy. Such electromagnetic interactions are geometrically
|
||
complex, because changes in electric forces cause changes in <i>magnetic
|
||
</i>forces, which affect their motion, and what is more, these
|
||
particles also have magnetic moments due to their intrinsic spin,
|
||
which affects them in a different way. The way that these forces work
|
||
is what is described by the gauge field theory for electrodynamics.
|
||
The transfer of matter from force-field matter to kinetic matter or
|
||
back is mediated by the gauge boson for the electromagnetic field,
|
||
that is, by the exchange of a particle between them. This particle is
|
||
like a real photon, because it is constituted by electric and
|
||
magnetic forces interacting in some way. But it is unlike the photons
|
||
that constitute light, because the momentum and energy it carries is
|
||
not related by <i>E = pc</i>. They cannot have a constant
|
||
proportion, because the energy and momentum needed to change the
|
||
motion of objects with inertial mass as required by Newton’s laws
|
||
do not have the same proportion in every case. (That is, momentum is
|
||
a function of velocity, whereas energy is a function of the square of
|
||
velocity, and so the proportion between them will vary with the
|
||
velocity involved.) But this is just the nature of virtual photons,
|
||
as opposed to real photons, which can exist independently and make up
|
||
ordinary light. The matter constituting virtual photons can come from
|
||
the force-field matter included in the rest masses of the particles,
|
||
but they must have whatever unit-like nature is required to transfer
|
||
all of the momentum and energy picked up from the force-field matter
|
||
during the last quantum kinetic cycle at the moment that cycle ends,
|
||
whatever the real nature of this possibly crude representation may
|
||
be.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">[When
|
||
electrons do finally exchange a photon with the nucleus and their
|
||
next quantum kinetic cycle is changed, they have a different location
|
||
from where they were at the end of the last quantum kinetic cycle and
|
||
their motion is changed for the next quantum kinetic cycle. This
|
||
step-like change in their motion is the effect of virtual photons on
|
||
the electron, but since the electron is a charged particles, it is
|
||
also helping to impose the force field from which the virtual photons
|
||
arises. And that is something that we must assume the electron does
|
||
constantly, not just at the end of each quantum kinetic cycle, for as
|
||
we shall see when we take up the gauge field theory, the electric
|
||
charge is explained ontologically as a pulsation of electric forces
|
||
emanating from the center of rest mass that is synchronized with
|
||
electric charges throughout the universe. That is, all negative
|
||
electric charges exert their maximum electric force at the same time
|
||
in a cyclic way, and what makes positive electric charges opposite is
|
||
that they exert their maximum electric force 180</span></font></font><font color="#000000"><sup><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">0</span></font></sup></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">out
|
||
of phase. (The synchronization of their pulsations is what is
|
||
represented by their "orientation in complex vector fields,"
|
||
and the virtual photons of the gauge filed theory are the forces that
|
||
must be exerted on charged particles as a result of their motion in
|
||
order to conserve electric charge, that is, to keep their pulsations
|
||
in synch with the universal pulsation of electric charges everywhere
|
||
despite their motion.) In any case, in order to be able to explain
|
||
quantum electrodynamics in this way, we will assume that electron is
|
||
exerting its electric force in synch with the universal pulsation,
|
||
and thus, it must occurs constantly during each quantum kinetic
|
||
cycle. And that means that we are assuming that the electron has a
|
||
determinate location at each moment during each quantum kinetic
|
||
cycle. (For furthere discussion, see </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaLeCosGaugeField.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Change:
|
||
Basic Objects: Gauge Field.</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">)]
|
||
</span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
interactions among these forms of matter must have the unit-like
|
||
nature that we are assuming explains Planck’s constant
|
||
ontologically, the structure of the atom can be explained as a result
|
||
of how all the kinds of quantum events involved fit together in the
|
||
spatio-temporal geometry determined by the inherent motion in the
|
||
part of space where they exist. This means that the interactions
|
||
between the electrons and the nucleus would have a cyclic character,
|
||
and all the interactions between electrons and the nucleus (as well
|
||
as between the electrons themselves) would give them quantum kinetic
|
||
cycles that are synchronized and related spatially, so that they fit
|
||
together neatly in space and time like spatio-temporal brick in the
|
||
atom as a brick wall being built into the future. But since there are
|
||
slightly different combinations of momentums (quantum kinetic cycles)
|
||
and positions (the locations where one quantum kinetic cycle ends and
|
||
another begins), there is no way to say precisely where any
|
||
particular electron is at any time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Without
|
||
trying to explain the orbitals in detail, it is clearly possible that
|
||
the electrons are following determinate pathways as a result of
|
||
interactions of this kind, changing their quantum kinetic cycles in a
|
||
step-like way while all the time helping constitute the
|
||
electromagnetic force field by way of their (pulsating) electric
|
||
charges. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though
|
||
electrons in the <i>s </i>orbital are most likely to be found in the
|
||
nucleus, that does not mean that they do not have a regular motion at
|
||
all. Assume that each such electron is in a cyclic interaction with
|
||
the nucleus in which it is accelerated first in one direction across
|
||
the nucleus and then back in the opposite direction. The changes in
|
||
how it moves come at the end of each lap when it is maximally far
|
||
away from the nucleus, and it does not change its velocity during the
|
||
trip, because it is a single quantum kinetic cycle (at least in the
|
||
lowest energy state). That is, where one quantum kinetic cycle ends
|
||
and another one begins, the electron changes its momentum all at
|
||
once, without slowing down or speeding up. The reason it is most
|
||
likely to be found at the center of the nucleus is that it can have
|
||
any direction of back and forth motion through the nucleus, and the
|
||
nucleus is the one part of space traversed by every possible pathway.
|
||
At higher energy levels, the electron would be moving faster, and
|
||
thus, it would have quantum kinetic cycles that are shorter and
|
||
quicker, and at the <i>n=3</i> energy level, it means that the
|
||
electron has a good chance of being located either with the nucleus
|
||
or at a distance from it, but not in between. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Electrons
|
||
in the <i>p </i>orbital at the <i>n=2 </i>higher energy level have an
|
||
orbital angular momentum. But it may seem that they cannot have a
|
||
circular orbit around the nucleus in the relevant plane, because its
|
||
orbital is usually represented as being a sphere located mostly on
|
||
opposite sides of the nucleus. But the regions on opposite sides of
|
||
the nucleus are just the real component of the amplitude its
|
||
Schrödinger wavefunction, and the complex component puts it on
|
||
opposite sides of the nucleus in the same plane, except for being
|
||
rotated by 90<sup>0</sup>. The <i>p </i>orbital could, therefore, be
|
||
a result of two quantum kinetic cycles, each trying to pull it back
|
||
and forth across the nucleus in perpendicular directions (as in the <i>s
|
||
</i>orbital), but perpendicular to one another. The quantum
|
||
interactions with the nucleus that keeps changing their quantum
|
||
kinetic cycles would have to be synchronized to occur 90<sup>0</sup>
|
||
out of phase to have this result, but that could be just the
|
||
condition of such quantum events being able to coincide with the same
|
||
part of space at all. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Even though
|
||
different <i>p </i>orbitals are rotating electrons in independent
|
||
planes of three dimensional space, they may also be synchronized in a
|
||
certain way so as to keep the electrons from exerting too great a
|
||
repulsive force on one another. (The general synchronization of these
|
||
quantum kinetic cycles and changes in them is evident in the <i>s
|
||
</i>electron at the third energy level, for its probable location is
|
||
either outside the lower level shell or at the nucleus, suggesting
|
||
that it is continually moving through those shells in some way.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The reason
|
||
that two electrons can fit into each orbital is that, with opposite
|
||
orientations of spin, they can be synchronized in exactly the same
|
||
way, but 180<sup>0</sup> out of phase or in the opposite directions.
|
||
Their opposite orientations of their intrinsic spins would exert a
|
||
force (a "magnetic moment") that lines them up in opposite
|
||
ways in the magnetic field, and that suggests that the magnetic
|
||
fields plays the central role in making it possible for the exchange
|
||
of virtual photons to generate such a neat pattern in the
|
||
spatio-temporal geometry of the inherent motion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Much more
|
||
needs to be worked out in order to show how all the electrons in the
|
||
orbitals could be following determinate trajectories determined by
|
||
quantum kinetic cycles, but there seems to be no reason to deny that
|
||
they have such step-like trajectories, even if they cannot be
|
||
measured precisely. And it could be extended to include the other
|
||
orbitals of atoms and the molecular orbitals that explain chemical
|
||
bonds among atoms and groups of atoms. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Quantum
|
||
jumps.</i> Finally, the puzzle about the electron jumps entailed by
|
||
the step-like changes in the energy level of atoms would be solved.
|
||
All the changes in momentums of electrons, even those within its
|
||
energy level, are step-like jumps. They occur at the end of one
|
||
quantum kinetic cycle (in our possibly crude way of thinking about
|
||
it) and before the next quantum kinetic cycle begins. It is clear
|
||
that the change in energy state is a change in the orbital occupied
|
||
by an electron is a step-like change, because it occurs with the
|
||
absorption and emission of a single photon of the appropriate energy
|
||
(and momentum). But that is just what would be expected, if the atom
|
||
has a structure that is determined by the way that the quantum events
|
||
of the various forms of matter constituting the atom must fit
|
||
together in order to coincide with the same part of space given the
|
||
spatio-temporal geometry determined by the inherent motion in space.
|
||
The electron absorbs or emits a real photon, which changes its next
|
||
quantum kinetic cycle so that it is part of a different orbital. The
|
||
only possible changes are step-like changes, because they are changes
|
||
in the structure of the atom. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
structure I have tried to describe here is the same structure that is
|
||
determined by the “quantum potential” that David Bohm found in
|
||
the Schrödinger wavefunction by mathematically separating out the
|
||
classical forces. That left a force with a localized effect that did
|
||
not decline with distance in the way electric forces do, but spread
|
||
throughout space. Though Bohm thinks of it as “active information”
|
||
which tells the electron how to play out its classical role, it can
|
||
be explained, as I have suggested here, by recognizing that kinetic
|
||
energy exists as a form of quantum matter by which objects with rest
|
||
mass coincide with space, because that determines the same structure
|
||
in the inherent motion in space. Quantum kinetic cycles and the
|
||
inherent motion in which they are fit together are, in other words,
|
||
another ontological explanation of Bohm’s quantum potential.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>Lorentz
|
||
distortions.</i></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">By
|
||
the way, this explanation of the structure of the atom affords an of
|
||
the inevitability of the Lorentz distortions. In explaining the truth
|
||
of Einstein’s special theory of relativity, I showed that the
|
||
Lorentz time dilation and length contraction would be inevitable in
|
||
the atom, if the electrons were bound to its nucleus by a unit-like
|
||
two-way electromagnetic interaction. (See </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/L/LoOtkCaLbStrLorentzDist.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Change:
|
||
Special theory of relativity</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">.)
|
||
That is apparently the implication of the Schrödinger wavefunction
|
||
that describes the motion of such an electron subject to the positive
|
||
charge of the nucleus, as can be seen in the </span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>s
|
||
</i></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">orbital.
|
||
</span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The <i>s
|
||
</i>orbital corresponds to a standing wave (as in a plucked string)
|
||
without a node, and that means that the path of the electron is only
|
||
half the total Schrödinger wavelength. (A standing wave of the
|
||
complete cycle would have a node, because one half would be positive
|
||
amplitude and the other half would have negative amplitude.) Since
|
||
the momentum of an electron cannot change during a quantum kinetic
|
||
cycle, it seems that either a single cycle of the wavefunction must
|
||
be responsible for both legs of its trip across the nucleus, or else
|
||
a complete cycle of the wavefunction is responsible for each leg. In
|
||
either case, the electromagnetic interaction between the electron and
|
||
the nucleus involves a two-way motion across the <i>s </i>orbital. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Such a
|
||
two-way, unit-like interaction would cause Lorentz distortions in the
|
||
atom, as explained in the discussion of special theory of relativity,
|
||
because the inherent motion is what mediates changes in the force
|
||
field (and quantum potential) caused by the electron motion. Thus,
|
||
when the atom has a high velocity relative to the inherent motion,
|
||
the periods of the cyclic interactions between the electrons and the
|
||
nucleus increases (causing a time dilation), and the difference
|
||
between the one-way velocity of light in opposite directions in space
|
||
changes in the longitudinal distance across which they act (causing a
|
||
length contraction). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As we have
|
||
seen, the relativistic increase in inertial mass is simply the
|
||
addition of quantum kinetic cycles to the rest mass cycles, which
|
||
determines the scaling factor for quantum kinetic cycle and
|
||
determines the force required to change its momentum. Thus, the
|
||
quantum nature of matter affords an ontological explanation of the
|
||
Lorentz distortions, which should eliminate the suspicion that they
|
||
are simply ad hoc assumptions contrived to defend classical physics
|
||
from the Einsteinian revolution. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">H<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_19" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="31" border="0">eisenberg’s
|
||
uncertainty principle. </font>The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
|
||
holds that it is not possible to measure both the position and
|
||
momentum of a particle, or indeed both members of any pair of
|
||
complementary variables, with arbitrarily high precision. According
|
||
to the Copenhagen interpretation, this is because these classical
|
||
properties do not describe the real nature of what exists at the most
|
||
elementary level. Position and momentum are just properties we read
|
||
into the world by using instruments designed to measure material
|
||
objects according to principles of classical physics. Since both
|
||
position and momentum are needed to predict what a classical particle
|
||
will do, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle entails, at least, a
|
||
limitation in what can be known, and it can be taken to mean that
|
||
what exists at one moment does not determine what happens the next
|
||
moment, or the denial of determinism. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
Heisenberg uncertainty principle is equivalent, as mentioned above,
|
||
to the non-commutability of operators on the Schrödinger
|
||
wavefunction: </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">When the
|
||
Schrödinger equation is set up for a given situation, such as an
|
||
atom or the two-slit experiment, the time-dependent Schrödinger
|
||
wavefunction is a complete description of how interactions unfold
|
||
over time. They unfold in a completely deterministic way, just like a
|
||
classical wave function, except that the Schrödinger wavefunction
|
||
uses complex numbers to describe the wave and it describes a wave in
|
||
a configuration space with as many dimensions as three times the
|
||
numbers of particles involved. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order to
|
||
make predictions from the Schrödinger wavefunction, mathematical
|
||
operators must be applied. They generate real numbers as expectation
|
||
values for the relevant property. But what is predicted is either
|
||
just a mean value for many such measurements, that is, a
|
||
probabilistic prediction, or if it does predict a precise value for
|
||
the property involved, that property is one of a pair of
|
||
complementary properties, and the other member of the pair cannot be
|
||
predicted precisely. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In other
|
||
words, classical properties come in complementary pairs that do not
|
||
commute. The values predicted for such properties depend on which
|
||
complementary operator is applied first. The application of an
|
||
operator changes the wavefunction, so that the next operator is
|
||
actually applied to a different wavefunction. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">When
|
||
a measurement is actually made, the quantum system turns out to have
|
||
a property with a determinate value. The standard interpretation of
|
||
what happens in such an measurement is called the “collapse of the
|
||
wavefunction.”</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What
|
||
actually exists in the system represented by a Schrödinger
|
||
wavefunction is assumed to be a superposition of all the states that
|
||
might be revealed by a measurement. That is, states corresponding to
|
||
all possible outcomes of measurements actually exist at the same
|
||
time. Thus, what happens when a measurement is actually made is that
|
||
the wavefunction collapses into one of those superposed states. The
|
||
system is changed, and then another wavefunction describes the
|
||
system, representing a different superposition of states. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since there
|
||
is nothing to determine which way the wavefunction collapses, this
|
||
view denies determinism. In effect, it explains the truth of the
|
||
Heisenberg uncertainty principle by the actual indeterminacy about
|
||
what happens. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is, however, no collapse of the wavefunction, according to
|
||
ontological explanations of quantum mechanics along the lines
|
||
presented here. In any quantum system, every particle with rest mass
|
||
has a determinate position and momentum and follows a classical
|
||
trajectory, and measurements reveal properties that the system
|
||
actually has. Instead of <i>giving </i>the system the measured
|
||
property, as the “collapse of the wavefunction” interpretation
|
||
implies, measurement discovers which property the system already had.
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
way of interpreting measurements of quantum systems is entailed by an
|
||
ontological explanation, because it explains the properties and
|
||
regularities described by physics as aspects of the substances
|
||
constituting the world (and if it is to be genuinely explanatory, it
|
||
cannot depend on any randomizing factor assumed as part of the basic
|
||
nature of the substances constituting the world). But the price of
|
||
holding such a view is explaining why the Heisenberg uncertainty
|
||
principle is true. And that can be accomplished by explaining why the
|
||
operators corresponding to complementary variables are
|
||
non-commutable. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
ontological explanation of complementarity is just the quantum nature
|
||
of matter. What “quantum” refers to ontologically are the
|
||
elementary events of which everything but space is composed. Each
|
||
quantum event is a unit, which either occurs as a whole or not at
|
||
all, and every such quantum event has the size of a single quantum of
|
||
action, denoted by <i>h,</i> Planck’s constant. This explains, as
|
||
we have seen, both the particle-like nature of photons as well as the
|
||
wave-like nature of particles with rest mass. In the case of such
|
||
particles, the complementarity comes from the quantum nature of their
|
||
kinetic energy, that is, from the nature of the form of matter that
|
||
changes the locations of particles with rest mass. Kinetic energy is
|
||
constituted by quantum kinetic cycles, implying that the motion of a
|
||
rest mass involves a series of cyclic quantum events, each of which
|
||
is a unit of action that moves the rest mass across space a certain
|
||
distance during a certain period of time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What
|
||
ultimately causes the Heisenberg uncertainty is the quantum kinetic
|
||
cycle. The velocity of a particle with rest mass moving through space
|
||
depends on the wavelength of its quantum kinetic cycle, but the
|
||
particle can have a range of different positions in space at the
|
||
beginning and end of each quantum kinetic cycle. That is, each
|
||
quantum kinetic cycle involves a certain <i>phase </i>as well as a
|
||
certain <i>wavelength</i>. But since the particle is located in a
|
||
potential field, in order for its energy level to be fixed, a
|
||
different location at the end of each cycle may require a slightly
|
||
different wavelength the next cycle. Thus, the quantum state of the
|
||
particle is some combination of wavelength and phase at its energy
|
||
level, but there are many combinations that might satisfy those
|
||
conditions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Both
|
||
complementary properties cannot be measured with arbitrary precision
|
||
at the same time, because they are different aspects of the same bit
|
||
of matter, which is a series of cycle of quantum events, each of
|
||
which can interact only as a whole. Either it interacts in a way that
|
||
reveals the wavelength of quantum kinetic cycle, which leaves its
|
||
phase undetermined, or else it interacts in a way that determines its
|
||
phase (that is, the position of the rest mass at the beginning or end
|
||
of a quantum kinetic cycle), and its wavelength is undetermined. But
|
||
both cannot be measured at the same time, because a quantum event
|
||
interacts only as a whole. And complementary aspects cannot be
|
||
measured is succession, because such interactions change the cycles
|
||
of quantum events. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
Schrödinger equation describes the motion of particles with rest
|
||
mass in a potential field where there is a continual exchange between
|
||
kinetic energy and potential energy, and on this ontological
|
||
explanation, the wavefunction that holds for any given system
|
||
describes the quantum kinetic cycles that result for such an
|
||
interaction. I have suggested what such an explanation implies about
|
||
the atom and the two-slit experiment, but it can be generalized.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">One way
|
||
that the Schrödinger wavefunction is different from a classical
|
||
wavefunction is that it is complex. There are complex numbers,
|
||
involving the square root of minus one, that cannot be eliminated,
|
||
and that makes its relationship to the actual world problematic. On
|
||
this ontological interpretation, however, they represent the
|
||
different possible phases of the quantum kinetic cycles constituting
|
||
the momentum of the rest mass cycles. That is, on our crude
|
||
interpretation, the starting points and ending points of the quantum
|
||
kinetic cycles can have different locations in space and time and
|
||
still be quantum kinetic cycles of the kind that can exist under
|
||
those circumstances. The complex numbers are a mathematical device
|
||
for representing all those different possible phases and keeping
|
||
track of how they affect one another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The other
|
||
way in which the Schrödinger wavefunction is different from a
|
||
classical wavefunction is that it describes a wave in a configuration
|
||
space with three times as many dimensions as there are particles in
|
||
the system, and that also makes its relationship to the actual world
|
||
of three dimensions problematic. On this interpretation, however,
|
||
each of the 3-dimensional spaces is used to keep track of how the
|
||
phases of the quantum kinetic cycle a particle involved in the system
|
||
unfolds in time. Though the quantum kinetic cycles of all the
|
||
particles depend on classical forces and laws, each particle needs a
|
||
3-D space of its own in order to represent all its possible phases
|
||
separately. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">When a
|
||
mathematical operator is applied to the wavefunction and a prediction
|
||
is made about the value of some property, the different possible
|
||
phases for all the particles are all reconciled with one another,
|
||
working out the interference effects they have on one another. And
|
||
the prediction is still usually just a mean value for many
|
||
experiments, because there is a range of different states in which
|
||
the system might be at that point, depending on which precise phases
|
||
and wavelengths the quantum kinetic cycles actually had. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The reason
|
||
that operators on the Schrödinger wavefunction do not commute is
|
||
that they predict two aspects of the same quantum event, such as the
|
||
wavelength and phase of the quantum kinetic cycle (as in the
|
||
explanation of the Heisenberg uncertainty above). It is possible to
|
||
predict a property precisely when it has already been measured once.
|
||
But the wavefunction that represents the quantum system as having
|
||
that precise property cannot be used to predict the complementary
|
||
property of the particle precisely. For example, when a measurement
|
||
of the momentum has been made, there is an operator that can be
|
||
applied to the wavefunction that will predict the momentum precisely.
|
||
But then the phase cannot be predicted precisely, because quantum
|
||
kinetic cycles with that wavelength can have different phases. The
|
||
same holds in reverse if the phase of the cycle is measured.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The “hidden
|
||
variable,” on this explanation, is space and how bits of matter
|
||
coincide with it, because the quantum nature of the kinetic energy of
|
||
the particles is the factor that determines what happens to the
|
||
particles. They need a complete quantum kinetic cycle to get from one
|
||
place to another, and thus, at the end of each quantum kinetic cycle,
|
||
the forces picked up during that cycle are what determines the next
|
||
complete quantum kinetic cycle. The interaction is step-like, and
|
||
though I may be portraying it too crudely by thinking of the quantum
|
||
events as having definite beginning points and ending points, the
|
||
requirement that particles travel across space by such cyclic quantum
|
||
kinetic events is what needs to be added in order to see how what
|
||
happens to the particle is determined. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">On
|
||
this ontological explanation, therefore, the quantum system is
|
||
deterministic, and we can understand in principle how it is
|
||
determined. But it is not possible to overcome the Heisenberg
|
||
uncertainty because of the nature of the quantum kinetic cycles that
|
||
constitute the motion of particles with rest mass. They exist only as
|
||
a whole or not at all, and thus, they are the smallest unit that can
|
||
interact with other bits of matter as a unit, which means in only one
|
||
way at a time. That is, the uncertainty comes from an incompleteness
|
||
about the representation of the Schrödinger wavefunction: it
|
||
represents quantum kinetic cycles, but it does not reveal which of
|
||
all possible combinations of wavelengths and phases is actual.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
incompleteness interpretation of the Heisenberg uncertainty solves
|
||
the problem of Schrödinger’s cat. Such cases arise when the phases
|
||
of the quantum cycles interfere in such a way that the system can
|
||
unfold in radically different ways. For example, in one case
|
||
Schrödinger’s cat is alive and well, and in the other case it is
|
||
dead. On the collapse of the wavefunction view, the Schrödinger
|
||
wavefunction is a complete description of the situation, implying
|
||
that what exists is a superposition of all the possible outcomes, and
|
||
thus, since it turns out one way or another when someone looks, which
|
||
one actually happens must depend on the measurement. But if which of
|
||
the radically different alternatives is actual depends on the phases
|
||
of their quantum cycles at the beginning, it is determined, and the
|
||
uncertainty about what happens comes from that information not being
|
||
included in the wavefunction representing the system. The
|
||
incompleteness is inevitable, but that does not mean that it is
|
||
indeterministic. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
phenomenon of tunneling can also illustrate the uncertainty. In
|
||
tunneling, a charged particle moves past a force field that is
|
||
classically strong enough to contain it. It occurs, for example, when
|
||
there is a potential barrier separating electrons from protons
|
||
attracting them that is just large enough to overcome the attractive
|
||
force between them. But different electrons have different quantum
|
||
kinetic cycles, setting up different patterns of spacetime cells in
|
||
the inherent motion, and depending on whether they reinforce or
|
||
cancel out the waves set up by the kinetic cycles of the protons, the
|
||
force of attraction will sometimes be great enough for the electron
|
||
to tunnel across the barrier.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
situation can be described by a Schrödinger wavefunction, which
|
||
represents it as a packet of waves, each standing for a different
|
||
possible combination of positions of the particles. As the situation
|
||
evolves, however, the packet splits into two different parts, one in
|
||
which electrons escape and one in which they do not. Thus, the
|
||
equation represents two distinct channels, which subsequently do not
|
||
interact. Which member of the packet is actual depends on precise
|
||
locations and kinetic cycles of the particles (both wavelengths and
|
||
phases). But they behave in a way described by the Schrödinger
|
||
wavefunction because they follow the wave pattern set up by their
|
||
kinetic cycles (See </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Bohm"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Bohm</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">Ch.
|
||
5).</span></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">B<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLQm_20" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="29" border="0">ell
|
||
correlations.</font> The final quantum puzzle is the violation of the
|
||
“Bell inequality” by certain quantum systems. John Bell pointed
|
||
out that quantum theory predicts that there are correlations between
|
||
distant events that cannot be explained without supposing that there
|
||
is a causal influence of some kind that travels between them faster
|
||
than the velocity of light. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Bell
|
||
correlations occur when symmetrical particles, with opposite spin
|
||
orientations, travel apart from one another in opposite directions
|
||
and the spin of each is measured far away from the other. They always
|
||
have opposite spin orientations when measured by imposing a magnetic
|
||
field in the same direction in space. When one is up, the other is
|
||
down. But the spin orientation they have in one direction of three
|
||
dimensional space should not affect the spin orientation in either of
|
||
the other two independent directions of space. And thus, the
|
||
measurement of the spin of one of the separated particles in one
|
||
direction should not affect the spin measured in the other particle
|
||
in a different direction. Nevertheless, it is possible to use the
|
||
measurement of the spin orientation of one of the particles in one
|
||
direction to predict better than expected what spin the other
|
||
particle will have when it is measured in an independent direction.
|
||
That would be impossible, if spin orientation is a property that each
|
||
particle has from the moment they separate and carry with them. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The greater
|
||
than expected correlations are predicted by quantum theory. The
|
||
prediction is made by applying the appropriate operators to the
|
||
Schrödinger wavefunction for the system, and so the measurements are
|
||
usually interpreted as involving a collapse of the wavefunction. That
|
||
makes it seem as though the measurement of the spin of one of the
|
||
particles helps determines which orientation of spin the other
|
||
particle will have. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The Bell
|
||
correlation is not only a prediction of quantum mechanics, but it has
|
||
been confirmed by experiments. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Bohm
|
||
(1993, Ch. 7) treats Bell correlations like any other puzzling
|
||
phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics, that is, as an indication
|
||
of the quantum potential. Bohm is also giving an ontological
|
||
explanation, but on his theory, the quantum potential is just a
|
||
“non-local” aspect of the processes themselves, as if the common
|
||
pool of information were broadcast faster than the velocity of light.
|
||
Indeed, Bohm takes the world as a whole to have such a non-local
|
||
aspect to it. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Non-locality
|
||
seems to deny substantivalism about space, and that would make it
|
||
incompatible with spatiomaterialism. If space is a substance, then
|
||
what separates one part of space (and what happens there) from any
|
||
distant part of space (and what happens there) are parts of space
|
||
between them that have an existence that is distinct from both of
|
||
them. Thus, the only way that this real separation between the parts
|
||
of space can be overcome is by something traveling across space as
|
||
time passes. To put it negatively, immediate action at a distance
|
||
would seem to deny that there really is any substance between the
|
||
distant points of interaction that is enduring through time distinct
|
||
from them. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
inherent motion in space is a dramatic way of representing this fact
|
||
about space as a substance. It is, perhaps, conceivable that Bohm’s
|
||
non-locality is compatible with spatiomaterialism, because I have
|
||
been speaking of the inherent motion in a more realistic way than may
|
||
be necessary. That is, instead of thinking of space as containing an
|
||
inherent motion, we can think of space as having a spatio-temporal
|
||
geometry. Thus, what I have described as waves laid out in space by
|
||
the inherent motion could likewise be just an aspect of the essential
|
||
nature of space everywhere that always exists at the moment. That is,
|
||
when the quantum kinetic cycle of a rest mass coincides with space,
|
||
it has a certain wavelength and phase, and that wavelength and phase
|
||
give it a different relationship to other parts of space with the
|
||
same wavelength that are in phase with it than it does with those
|
||
that are not in phase. Thus, what I have described as a particle
|
||
“broadcasting” its wavelength and phase throughout space would be
|
||
just a relationship that always already exists in the spatio-temporal
|
||
geometry of space. If that were how the quantum potential is
|
||
mediated, as Bohm assumes, it would explain the Bell correlation in
|
||
the same way as other quantum phenomena.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">I doubt
|
||
that any such ontological explanation is adequate, however, because
|
||
in order to explain interference phenomena in the two-slit
|
||
experiment, for example, the quantum potential at any point in space
|
||
would have to depend not only on the wavelength and phase of the
|
||
particle, but also on the geometrical structure of the wall with
|
||
two-slits. The waves laid out by the inherent motion that guide the
|
||
particle to one of the fringes of the interference pattern must be
|
||
singled out from all the other spacetime cells by the structure of
|
||
the apparatus and how it fits together with the wavelength of the
|
||
particle, and that would also have to be something about each
|
||
location in space that always already exists for each possible
|
||
arrangement of particles and wall with two-slits. This would be to
|
||
attribute an enormously complex structure to the essential nature of
|
||
space at every moment of its existence, and the complexity of such an
|
||
explanation makes it look rather ad hoc. It would be a much simpler
|
||
ontological explanation if the quantum potential were determined by
|
||
an actual wave from the moving particle in the inherent motion that
|
||
interacts with the two-slit wall, but that is not action at a
|
||
distance. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is, however, another explanation of the Bell correlations which is
|
||
compatible with the principle of local action. Contrary to what many
|
||
philosophers and physicists assume, what is actually known about this
|
||
phenomenon does not force us to believe that the principle of local
|
||
action is violated. There is a way of interpreting these phenomena
|
||
that is compatible with explanation of the quantum potential by waves
|
||
laid out in space by the inherent motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
predictions from quantum mechanics have to do with measurements of
|
||
spin orientation, and they cover only those cases in which both
|
||
events are actually measured. As a matter of fact, however, every
|
||
experiment that can test Bell’s theorem involves many, many runs in
|
||
which a measurement is simply not successfully made of one or the
|
||
other particle (or of both particles). It is possible, therefore,
|
||
that the cases in which both measurement are made are a biased
|
||
sample. That is, if we could know the spin orientations in <i>all </i>the
|
||
cases in which two particles split, it could turn out that their spin
|
||
orientations in different directions were indeed independent and
|
||
there is no Bell correlation.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote31anc" href="#sdendnote31sym"><sup>xxxi</sup></a></sup>
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Such a bias
|
||
in the experiment cannot be just an accident. The many cases that
|
||
must be ignored because no measurement was made must, for physical
|
||
reasons, be mostly of a kind that, if included, would wipe out the
|
||
improbable correlation between the distant events. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It may not
|
||
seem like there can be any such factor, because the Bell correlations
|
||
are predicted by quantum theory. That makes it seem that the Bell
|
||
correlations are just another puzzling quantum phenomena, which
|
||
manifest the same underlying mechanisms (whatever they are) as in any
|
||
case of measurement. This is the assumption that is made in taking
|
||
the correlation to involve the collapse of the wavefunction, except
|
||
that unlike the other puzzling phenomena, it cannot be explained by
|
||
the kinds of ontological causes described above, because Bell
|
||
inequalities show that the collapse of the wavefunction involves
|
||
action at a distance. That is, the hidden variable cannot be a local
|
||
property, but must be a property that somehow holds of the whole
|
||
system, including both particles, regardless how far they are apart
|
||
at the time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
prediction of the Bell correlation by quantum mechanics shows,
|
||
however, only that some quantum phenomenon is involved. It may not,
|
||
however, be the kind of phenomenon it is seems to be. The nature of
|
||
intrinsic spin is not well understood, and it is treated as though it
|
||
were completely described by the outcome of a measurement. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In the case
|
||
of fermions, of particles with ½ spin, such as electrons, spin is
|
||
measured by imposing a magnetic field and measuring the magnetic
|
||
moment, that is, the force. The orientation of spin is simply the
|
||
sign of that force, positive or negative: if the force is in one
|
||
direction, it is spin up, and if it is in the other direction, it is
|
||
spin down. Though that is how spin is measured, it is possible that
|
||
particles have a more determinate spin orientation that is not
|
||
measured in that way. An electron, for example, could have a precise
|
||
orientation in three dimensional space, and though that is what
|
||
determines the result of the measurement in the one direction that is
|
||
singled out by the magnetic field applied, it also has other, more
|
||
subtle effects on how the particle interacts.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In the case
|
||
of photons, which are what has been used in the experiments that
|
||
confirm the Bell correlations, spin is even more puzzling. Since the
|
||
photon is a boson with a spin of <i>1</i>, it should have three
|
||
different possible orientations in a magnetic field, but since it
|
||
moves through space with the velocity of light, one theoretically
|
||
possible way of interacting is eliminated, leaving two possible
|
||
orientations of spin. Opposite orientations of spin in the case of
|
||
photons can be understood as opposite ways in which their electric
|
||
force rotates as they move across space, one clockwise in the
|
||
direction of motion and the other counterclockwise. However, it is
|
||
usually measured by the polarization of the photon as it passes
|
||
through a polarizer which is at rest and in which perpendicular
|
||
directions, usually called vertical and horizontal, correspond to the
|
||
two orientations of spin. But it is not clear why a rotation through
|
||
a right angle would change whether a photon with, say, a clockwise
|
||
rotation of its electric force, would pass through the polarizer. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the case of both electrons and photons, there is enough uncertainty
|
||
about the nature of spin and what is being measured that it is
|
||
possible that the Bell correlations depends in some way on how spin
|
||
orientation is measured. In either case, the three independent
|
||
directions in which spin orientation (up or down or vertical or
|
||
horizontal) can be measured are measured by an apparatus that is
|
||
rotated in a two-dimensional plane perpendicular to the pathway of
|
||
the particle. Thus, what may be a three-way symmetry among spins in
|
||
three dimensional space is, in effect, reduced to a three-way
|
||
symmetry in a two-dimensional plane. It is possible that in
|
||
projecting that the three dimensional structure of spin orientations
|
||
onto the two-dimensional plane of the measuring apparatus, some
|
||
orientations of spin are more likely to pass by undetected than
|
||
others, and they could be ones that would destroy the Bell
|
||
correlation. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
selectivity may depend, furthermore, on an interaction between the
|
||
actual orientation of spin in three dimensional space and the phase
|
||
of its quantum kinetic cycle. Though the quantum potential that is
|
||
responsible for interference and other real quantum phenomena
|
||
requires a real effect propagating through space with the inherent
|
||
motion, there could be an aspect of the waves set up in space by the
|
||
inherent motion that makes all wavelengths with the same size and
|
||
phase, wherever they exist in space, relate in a special way to the
|
||
three dimensions of space. For example, the two particles have
|
||
quantum kinetic cycles that are not only of the same wavelength, but
|
||
also in phase with one another, and thus, if certain phases make it
|
||
easier for them to interact from certain directions in
|
||
three-dimensional space than others, the direction used by the
|
||
detectors to test for spin orientation could result in a biased
|
||
sample, making it appear that distant events are correlated. Such a
|
||
factor would bias the sample in a way that makes it seem there are
|
||
effect traveling faster than the velocity of light. And it would be
|
||
local, because it depends only on the two particles having kinetic
|
||
cycles that are in phase.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is reason to think that some such explanation is correct, because
|
||
Bell correlations occur only with measurements of spin orientation
|
||
and the non-locality exhibited by the Bell correlations in
|
||
measurements of spin is not an essential part of any other quantum
|
||
phenomena. If it really were a result of action at a distance, it
|
||
should be possible to make what happens at one location determine
|
||
what happens elsewhere. But Bell correlations are not of a kind that
|
||
can be used even to send signals from one place to another. In short,
|
||
the Bell correlations are such a limited, subtle and questionable
|
||
violation of the principle of local action that it would be foolish
|
||
to use it as a reason for denying that spatiomaterialism can be used
|
||
as an ontological foundation for a new way of doing philosophy,
|
||
especially when that foundation works out so well in every other way.
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
much more would have to be said to show that this kind of ontological
|
||
explanation of the nature of matter and space accounts for all the
|
||
phenomena described by quantum mechanics, including quantum field
|
||
theory and what it says about the nature of spin, this is enough to
|
||
show <i>that there is no good reason to believe that it is impossible
|
||
</i>to reduce quantum mechanics to spatiomaterialism. What is known
|
||
by physics does not force us to give up the principle of local action
|
||
entailed by this ontology, because neither experiment nor quantum
|
||
mechanics is sufficient to demonstrate that the principle of local
|
||
action does not hold. But this particular ontological theory is just
|
||
a possibility introduced in order to speculate about a deeper
|
||
explanation of the nature of matter and space, and what is relevant
|
||
here is that, even this first approximation shows that there is no
|
||
reason to believe that anything established empirically by quantum
|
||
physics forces us to give up spatiomaterialism. There is at least one
|
||
way that a two-substance ontology like ours can account for the
|
||
quantum mysteries. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Let
|
||
me emphasize, however, that it is not necessary to believe that what
|
||
has been described here is completely accurate. It is only one of a
|
||
family of ontological interpretations of quantum theory. What is
|
||
common to the family is that the essential nature of matter involves
|
||
the ability of bits of matter (of the same form) to exist
|
||
independently of one another so that they can acquire spatial
|
||
relations by being contained by different parts of space. There may
|
||
be reasons for preferring another member of that family to this one.
|
||
But this explanation of the quantum mysteries is enough to show that
|
||
we do not have to give up the belief that space and matter are
|
||
substances that exist continuously over time. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_01" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="47" border="0">osmology.</b></font>
|
||
By “cosmology,” I mean the ontological explanation of those parts
|
||
of the cosmos having to so with the extremes of the very small and
|
||
brief and the very large and long-lasting. We have already explained
|
||
ontologically the truth of the basic laws of physics governing the
|
||
middle range involving ordinary material objects and their
|
||
electromagnetic interactions. But as we recognized when we inferred
|
||
to spatiomaterialism as the best ontological explanation of the
|
||
natural world, the simplest and best form of any such ontology would
|
||
hold that time, space and matter are infinite. Though we left open
|
||
the possibility that a more complex ontological assumption may be
|
||
required to explain certain phenomena, the ideal from of
|
||
spatiomaterialism would hold that the universe is infinite.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
kind of infinity in question is twofold. Starting with the finite,
|
||
there are two ways there could be an infinite series of steps, one by
|
||
division into smaller and smaller finite units, and another by
|
||
multiplication into larger and larger finite units. And there are
|
||
three basic assumptions of spatiomaterialism to which it could apply:
|
||
space, time, and matter. Let us consider where we stand on each of
|
||
them. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Space.</b></i>
|
||
Space seems to be infinite in both ways, as we noted in
|
||
<font face="Arial, sans-serif">Spatiomaterialism.</font> There must
|
||
be finite distances in space, for otherwise space would not have a
|
||
geometrical structure at all. To hold that space has three dimensions
|
||
is to hold that distances in it (and lengths of the objects
|
||
coinciding with it) can be measured in three independent dimensions,
|
||
say, by placing measuring rods down one after another. Each measuring
|
||
rod is a unit, and since units that are parts of the same world can
|
||
be counted [as established in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Relations
|
||
(Math)]</font>, distance measurements must obey the theorems of
|
||
arithmetic, including division and multiplication. Thus, space can be
|
||
infinite in two way, by an unending division of finite distances or
|
||
by an unending multiplication of them. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
division of finite distances in space is without end, space is
|
||
continuous. That is what we have assumed, and we have found no reason
|
||
to doubt that space is continuous.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
multiplication of finite distances in space is without end, space is
|
||
infinite in extent. That is the kind of spatiomaterialism that
|
||
empirical ontologists must prefer, because it is the simplest
|
||
assumption. Since the essential nature of each part of space includes
|
||
its geometrical relations in three dimensions to every other part of
|
||
space, an end to space in any direction would mean that every part of
|
||
space has a different kind of essential nature from the rest, rather
|
||
than the same kind of relationship to different particular parts of
|
||
space. Not only would that complicate the nature of each part of
|
||
space almost beyond recognition, but it would also be difficult, to
|
||
say the least, to explain what happens at the end of space. As the
|
||
ancient Greeks asked, What happens at the end of space? Does a spear
|
||
thrown toward the edge of space bounce back? </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus, we
|
||
assumed that space is infinite in extent. But we acknowledged that we
|
||
might have to revise that assumption, for that is the prevailing
|
||
belief among bit gang cosmologists and a spatiomaterial world in
|
||
which space is not infinite is possible. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Time.</b></i>
|
||
Time seems to be infinite in both ways as well. There are finite
|
||
periods of time. There must be, because there are cyclic processes
|
||
involving real change. Since such cycles are units that can be
|
||
counted, the theorems of arithmetic must be true of measurements of
|
||
time, including division and multiplication. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
division of finite periods of time is without end, time is
|
||
continuous. There is every reason to believe that time is continuous,
|
||
because space is continuous and space has an inherent motion. If the
|
||
division of time were not as unending as the division of space, there
|
||
would be no explanation of motion, because objects could not occupy
|
||
continuously connected parts of space as they endured through time.
|
||
(And the original and still most basic employment of the calculus to
|
||
represent motion in a way that overcomes Zeno’s paradox about
|
||
motion would be a misrepresentation of the world.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Furthermore,
|
||
spatiomaterialism is committed to the continuousness of time, because
|
||
it is entailed by the assumption of an inherent motion in space as an
|
||
aspect of its essential nature. Each distance in space corresponds to
|
||
a period of time, and thus, if space is continuously divisible, time
|
||
must also be. (To be sure, it is not possible to measure space by the
|
||
velocity of light because of the Lorentz distortions, and even if we
|
||
could, it would not necessarily tell us about space itself because of
|
||
the acceleration of the inherent motion in gravitational fields. But
|
||
the relationship between space and time, though complicated in these
|
||
ways, requires time to be continuous, if space is.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
multiplication (or addition) of periods of time is without end, time
|
||
is infinite in extent, or what is called “eternal.” The eternity
|
||
of the world is entailed by spatiomaterialism, because it assumes
|
||
that existence is in time. That is, spatiomaterialism assumes that
|
||
the world is constituted by substances of kinds that never come into
|
||
existence nor ever go out of existence, but rather endure through
|
||
time. That is what enables it to explain change as really occurring
|
||
as time passes. Given its view of time and existence,
|
||
spatiomaterialism cannot believe that there was a beginning to the
|
||
world, because that would be to hold that something comes from
|
||
nothing. Nor can spatiomaterialism hold that the world stops existing
|
||
at some point, for that would be to hold that what exists can become
|
||
nothing. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Matter.
|
||
</b></i>Given our ontological explanation of quantum mechanics,
|
||
however, matter can be infinite in only one way. The existence of
|
||
ordinary material objects shows that there are finite accumulations
|
||
of matter, and since they are units that can be counted, theorems of
|
||
arithmetic are also true of matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
multiplication (or addition) of matter is without end, matter is
|
||
infinite in extent, that is, the total quantity of matter in the
|
||
world is infinite. There is no reason to doubt that the quantity of
|
||
matter is infinite, if space is infinite, because there is no reason
|
||
to believe that only a finite region of space has bits of matter
|
||
coinciding with it. On the other hand, if space were not infinite,
|
||
matter could not be infinite, at least not ordinary matter, because
|
||
there would be no room for all of it. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We know,
|
||
however, that the division of matter cannot go one without end,
|
||
because the theory of quantum matter holds that each bit of matter is
|
||
constituted by a series of cyclic quantum events, each with the size
|
||
represented by Planck’s constant, <i>h</i>. The spatiomaterialist
|
||
explanation of quantum mechanics is based on the assumption that
|
||
quantum events have a unit-like nature in which they either exist as
|
||
a whole or not at all. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
force-field matter, such as electromagnetic and gravitational fields,
|
||
may be infinitely divisible. But that is because force field are just
|
||
properties or conditions that are imposed on space by quantum matter,
|
||
and the quantity of matter they contain is already counted in the
|
||
rest masses of the material objects exerting them (except in the case
|
||
of gravitational waves, which are eventually converted in quantum
|
||
events as they accelerate bits of matter). Quantum matter is the
|
||
basic form in which matter endures through time as a substance. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">At
|
||
this point, therefore, spatiomaterialism still takes space and time
|
||
to be infinite in both ways and matter to be infinite in extent,
|
||
though only finitely divisible. The final question in this
|
||
ontological explanation of physics is, therefore, whether
|
||
spatiomaterialism can keep this simple form. Do its assumptions about
|
||
space have to be more complicated in order to acknowledge that space
|
||
and matter are finite in extent? Can its assumption that matter is
|
||
not infinitely divisible be squared with what physics knows about the
|
||
basic objects? And do we have to accept that time is not eternal and
|
||
admit that spatiomaterialism is just an effect of a deeper, theistic
|
||
ontology in order not to give up ontology altogether? These are the
|
||
cosmological questions that spatiomaterialism must answer. The issues
|
||
to be addressed can be separated into two sets, one having to do with
|
||
the finite divisibility of matter and the other having to do with the
|
||
infinite extent of space and time. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Finite
|
||
divisibility of matter.</b></i> Though spatiomaterialism has assumed
|
||
that matter is constituted by cyclic quantum events in order to
|
||
explain the truth of quantum mechanics, it had to take for granted
|
||
that electrons and the nuclei of atoms can be explained in as a form
|
||
of quantum matter. This is clearly not the deepest truth about
|
||
nature, since physics has found other particles like electrons that
|
||
are much heavier, and some that are massless and carry not electric
|
||
charge at all. And it has discovered not only that the atomic nucleus
|
||
is composed of protons and neutrons, but also that such nucleons are
|
||
composed of quarks, not to mention the two short range forces
|
||
involved in the interactions of its basic objects. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The main
|
||
question is not whether the rest masses of the basic objects of
|
||
physics can be explained ontologically as forms of quantum matter.
|
||
There is not much reason to doubt that it is possible to give such a
|
||
spatiomaterialist ontological explanation, though some might find it
|
||
reassuring to see how it works out in more detail. But there is a
|
||
reason to take up the issue of the nature of the most basic objects
|
||
here. It is another opportunity to show the fruitfulness of an
|
||
ontological explanation of the world based on spatiomaterialism. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Physics now
|
||
recognizes some 38 different kinds of basic particles (counting
|
||
antiparticles, but not the three colors of each quark), and though
|
||
they are a far less unruly lot than the particles recognized by
|
||
physics thirty years ago, they are still an odd lot. Part of the
|
||
problem is that the four basic forces of nature have not yet been
|
||
fully unified. Even if we count the so-called electroweak force as
|
||
the unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces, the strong
|
||
force still resists assimilation as part of a single gauge theory,
|
||
and as we have noted, physicists are at wits ends about how to
|
||
represent gravitation as another force of the same kind. Particle
|
||
physicists believe that there must be a deeper theory, but the
|
||
dramatic progress of high energy physics during the 1970’s and 80’s
|
||
has come to a halt in the 1990’s. And they are still pursuing the
|
||
“holy grail” of physics, a single mathematical law from which the
|
||
laws describing all the forces of nature can be derived. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
possibility that is not even being considered in this effort is
|
||
explanatory ontology. As we shall see, by recognizing that space is a
|
||
substance, it is possible to reduce all the basic particles of
|
||
physics to nine or ten kinds of particles (including antiparticles).
|
||
Indeed, it may even be possible to formulate spatiomaterialism in a
|
||
way that reduces everything to just three basic particles — and
|
||
space, of course, as the substance with which they coincide. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Infinite
|
||
extent of space and time.</b></i> In the direction of very large and
|
||
very long-lasting, spatiomaterialism must be false, if contemporary
|
||
cosmogony is correct, because it is currently assumed that the
|
||
universe began with the big bang and has been expanding ever since.
|
||
Indeed, the prevailing theory implies not only that the universe had
|
||
a beginning in time, but also that space and matter are finite in
|
||
extent. And some even interpret it as imply that the universe might
|
||
simply drop out of existence at some time in the future (if it
|
||
collapses because of gravitation), implying that time is also finite
|
||
in the direction of the future. There are both theoretical and
|
||
empirical reasons for believing that the universe began with a big
|
||
bang and continues to expand, though as we shall see,
|
||
spatiomaterialism can be defended against both.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">On the
|
||
theoretical side, Einstein showed how his general theory of
|
||
relativity could be used to represent the universe as a whole, and
|
||
with a relatively minor revision, that approach can be used to
|
||
represent the expansion of a universe being contracted by gravitation
|
||
in a mathematically precise way. That is the Einstein-de Sitter
|
||
model, as it is widely accepted by cosmologists as explaining the
|
||
expansion of the universe. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
empirical reasons are Hubble’s discovery of a correlation in
|
||
galaxies between their red-shift and distance which suggests that
|
||
galaxies are all rushing away from one another, the discovery that
|
||
the proportion of hydrogen and helium in the universe is explained by
|
||
their synthesis shortly after the big bang, and the discovery of a
|
||
cosmic background radiation that seems to be the left over from the
|
||
big bang (with wavelengths elongated by the expansion of space in the
|
||
interim). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Spatiomaterialism
|
||
can, however, be defended against both kinds of reasons. Its critique
|
||
of Einsteinian cosmology is based on the spatiomaterialist
|
||
explanation of the truth of Einstein’s general theory of relativity
|
||
and its explanation of the relationship between gravitation and the
|
||
other basic forces of nature. And spatiomaterialism offers another
|
||
way of explaining all the empirical evidence for the big bang and the
|
||
expansion of the universe. It is an approach to cosmological issues
|
||
that is not even being considered these days. Not only is it a
|
||
plausible defense of spatiomaterialism, but it also illustrates the
|
||
fruitfulness of spatiomaterialism in opening up new ways of
|
||
explaining natural phenomena. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Let
|
||
me emphasize, however, that it is not necessary to defend such a
|
||
cosmological theory in order to spatiomaterialism as the ontology for
|
||
our new way of doing philosophy. What physics has discovered about
|
||
the basic particles does not even suggest that spatiomaterialism is
|
||
false, and like quantum mechanics, we could simply take it for
|
||
granted that a spatiomaterialist theory can be formulated. To be
|
||
sure, big bang cosmogony does contradict spatiomaterialism. But
|
||
scientists generally are not confident enough of its conclusions to
|
||
use them as a reason for dismissing spatiomaterialism out of hand.
|
||
Popular culture seems to be confident of the big bang, and the Church
|
||
has welcomed it warmly. But among scientists, cosmology is still a
|
||
matter of hot dispute. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is, however, a point in carrying this project to the extremes of the
|
||
very small and brief and to the very large and prolonged, because it
|
||
turns up certain advantages of recognizing that space is a substance.
|
||
There are straightforward ways of elaborating spatiomaterialism into
|
||
an ontological explanation of cosmological phenomena, and hopefully
|
||
it will do not harm to suggest them here. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
part the spatiomaterialist ontological explanation of the world is
|
||
even more speculative than its explanation of quantum mechanics. It
|
||
is included here in the spirit of exploration. By offering an
|
||
ontological explanation, I do not suggest that these problems can be
|
||
solved in the end without the use of mathematics to calculate
|
||
quantitatively precise predictions and the attempt to make the
|
||
appropriate measurements. Ontology is a deeper explanation than the
|
||
efficient-cause explanations of empirical science, but it is not a
|
||
substitute for them. An ontology must be able to explain why those
|
||
efficient-cause explanations are true in order to be adequate. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Physics is,
|
||
however, so dependent on the use of mathematics for representing the
|
||
world that it has given up the intuitive insights that would come
|
||
from recognizing that the world is constituted by space as well as
|
||
matter. In explaining the truth of the special theory of relativity,
|
||
the general theory, and quantum mechanics, we have seen how ontology
|
||
offers a more intuitive explanation of these phenomena, one that uses
|
||
our capacity to imagine space and time to think of space and matter
|
||
as substances enduring through time and, thereby, constituting the
|
||
natural world. Thus, it would not be surprising at this point, if,
|
||
together with the enormously powerful constraints that mathematical
|
||
theories impose on what is possible, the attempt to formulate an
|
||
ontological explanation illuminated possibilities in the vague
|
||
darkness that lies beyond what is firmly in the grasp of experimental
|
||
physicists that turn out to be true. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though I
|
||
claim that the following theories are true, I am not claiming that
|
||
the following explanation is the only possible spatiomaterialist
|
||
explanation of cosmological phenomena, nor even that it is the best.
|
||
My only claim is that it is a spatiomaterialist ontological
|
||
explanation, and it does enable us to discuss these issues in a new
|
||
and illuminating way. It explores an avenue that physics will travel,
|
||
when it acknowledges that ontology is explanatory and uses the
|
||
empirical method to infer to the best ontological-cause explanation,
|
||
not just the best efficient-cause explanation. But even before it
|
||
proves itself in that more demanding arena, it is possible to get a
|
||
glimpse of how how the world is whole even at the extremes of the
|
||
very small and the very large.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><b>B<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_02" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="36" border="0">asic
|
||
objects.</b></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">Let
|
||
us first extend this ontological explanation in the direction of the
|
||
very small and the very brief. The place to begin is with the
|
||
so-called “Standard Model” of physics and the inventory of the
|
||
basic forces and particles included in it. (A history of the history
|
||
of particle physics by one of the participants that I would recommend
|
||
is </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Hooft"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>'t
|
||
Hooft</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">(1997)).
|
||
</span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">B<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_03" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="56" border="0">asic
|
||
particles of physics.</font> In order to set the scene for
|
||
inventorying the basic particles of physics, I will first describe
|
||
more fully a basic difference that physics recognizes between two
|
||
kinds of basic objects, fermions and bosons. Gauge field theories
|
||
hold that forces are mediated by bosons, the so-called gauge particle
|
||
of the underlying field, and the next step will be to describe the
|
||
two forces of nature in these terms. That will put us in a position
|
||
to list all the kinds of basic particles currently recognized by
|
||
contemporary physics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>F<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_04" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="29" border="0">ermions
|
||
and bosons.</b></i> The most fundamental difference among basic
|
||
objects in space is that between fermions and bosons. (It is basic to
|
||
the Yang-Mills field theories which are currently used to explain the
|
||
basic forces.) This difference is exemplified by electrons and
|
||
photons. As a first approximation, fermions, such as electrons, are
|
||
the material objects on which forces the work, whereas bosons, such
|
||
as photons, are the forces that work on them. Though the difference
|
||
is more subtle, this contrast points to the basic difference in their
|
||
roles. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Fermions
|
||
are basically particles that exclude one another from occupying the
|
||
same quantum state, whereas bosons are particles that tend to fall
|
||
into the same quantum states. To put it more precisely, fermions obey
|
||
the Pauli exclusion principle, while bosons do not. They behave
|
||
according to Bose-Einstein statistics, as opposed to Fermi
|
||
statistics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
difference between them is the kind of intrinsic spin they have. Spin
|
||
is the quantum mechanical version of a rotating object with an
|
||
electric charge. It is a measure of the magnetic moment exerted by
|
||
the particle when a magnetic field is imposed on it. But there are
|
||
two different kinds of spin, distinguishing fermions and bosons. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The Pauli
|
||
exclusion principle holds of any particle with some multiple of ½
|
||
spin (. .-5/2, -3/2, -1/2, 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, , ,) whereas Bose-Einstein
|
||
statistics hold of particles with an even number of spin (. .-2, -1,
|
||
0, 1, 2, . .). The spin indicates the number of different forces the
|
||
particle might exhibit when a magnetic force is imposed on it from a
|
||
certain direction. The number is equal to <i>2s + 1. </i>Thus, a
|
||
particle with 1/2 spin can exert one of two possible forces when
|
||
placed in a magnetic field, either positive or negative (up or down),
|
||
whereas a particle with spin of 1 can have one of three values,
|
||
positive, negative, or zero. Among the basic particles, however,
|
||
there are only three kinds: particles with ½ spin, particles with a
|
||
spin of 1, and particles with a spin of 0. The other values of spin
|
||
come from combining basic particles. (Actually, Yang-Mills field
|
||
theory recognize only particles with a spin of ½ and 1, but it has
|
||
been necessary to add particles with 0 spin in order to explain the
|
||
rest masses of particles.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Fermions
|
||
have the nature that makes them most like ordinary material objects,
|
||
for they exclude one another from occupying the same place at the
|
||
same time. The structure of the atom, for example, depends mainly on
|
||
the Pauli exclusion principle. The various electron orbitals are
|
||
distinct quantum states, and since electrons are fermions, only one
|
||
electron (of each kind) can occupy each orbital. (The reason that
|
||
there are usually two electrons in each orbital is that there are two
|
||
opposite kinds of electrons, spin up and spin down, and one of each
|
||
kind can fit into each orbital.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Bosons are
|
||
the particles that mediate the forces of nature, and they are called
|
||
particles of the underlying field. Whereas basic fermions are
|
||
point-like in the sense that they are located at each moment at a
|
||
certain point in space, bosons have a nature more like space itself,
|
||
because they emerge from the underlying field to mediate its forces. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Particles
|
||
susceptible to a force are said to have a “charge,” but in order
|
||
to conserve the charge so that it does not disappear (or multiply) as
|
||
the particles move and interact, the force field laid out in space
|
||
associated with the charge generates bosons, or forces, that act on
|
||
the particle in certain ways, changing its motion or even its kind.
|
||
This is called “local symmetry,” but it is basically the
|
||
regularities about the particle that must hold in order for the
|
||
“charge” to be unchanged.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">One
|
||
basic difference between electrons and photons does not, however,
|
||
hold generally for fermions and bosons. Electrons have a rest mass,
|
||
whereas photons are massless particles. But this contrast in rest
|
||
mass crosscuts the distinction between fermions and bosons. There are
|
||
massless fermions and massive bosons.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though most
|
||
fermions have rest mass, there is one set of fermions that, as far as
|
||
physics can tell, do not have any rest mass at all. They are called
|
||
“neutrinos,” which are affected only by the weak force (see
|
||
below). Theory does not require them to have a rest mass, and
|
||
experiments have made it clear that the maximum mass they can have is
|
||
about 12 eV.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote32anc" href="#sdendnote32sym"><sup>xxxii</sup></a></sup>
|
||
With a spin of ½, neutrinos should have two possible orientations of
|
||
spin, but in this case, having opposite orientations of spin is what
|
||
distinguishes each kind of neutrino from its antineutrino. Normally,
|
||
antiparticles have opposite electric charges, but neutrinos have no
|
||
electric charge, and the opposite orientation of spin is equivalent
|
||
to having an opposite weak charge. The neutrino has left-handed spin
|
||
in the direction of its motion, and the antineutrino has right-handed
|
||
spin. They are mirror images of one another. (As massless particles,
|
||
the fact that each kind of neutrino has only one orientation of spin,
|
||
despite having a spin of ½, could be explained in much the same way
|
||
as it is explained in the photon: one orientation of spin is lost
|
||
because they move at the velocity of light, because they cannot stop
|
||
to turn around so that they can interact from the other direction.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though
|
||
photons are massless, there are bosons with mass. Mass would be
|
||
expected in bosons that are merely fermions locked together in a way
|
||
that neutralizes (or combines) their opposite orientations of space
|
||
so that they have a net spin that is an even number, such as the
|
||
helium atom. But bosons that are basic particles mediating the forces
|
||
of some underlying field are expected to be massless, and thus, the
|
||
discovery that the bosons mediating one of the basic forces of nature
|
||
have rest mass (the weak force) posed a problem that had to be
|
||
overcome. Let us turn, therefore, to the basic forces of nature. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>B<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_05" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="31" border="0">asic
|
||
forces of nature.</b></i> Physics recognizes four forces in nature
|
||
(gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the
|
||
weak force), and attempts to knit a mathematical description of them
|
||
into a single, uniform deductive system have used the mathematics of
|
||
gauge field theory (Yang-Mill gauge invariance). Since bosons are the
|
||
kind of particle that emerge from the underlying field to mediate
|
||
those forces, they can be called gauge bosons. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Electromagnetic
|
||
force.</i> We have already seen how the electromagnetic force can be
|
||
explained ontologically, and in passing, I have mentioned the gauge
|
||
field theory of electromagnetic interactions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Basically,
|
||
the electric charge is represented as having an orientation in a
|
||
complex field, and the electromagnetic forces affecting it are what
|
||
is required for local symmetry, that is, for the charge to keep the
|
||
same orientation in the complex field as the particle changes
|
||
location in space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">What I have
|
||
described as the force field matter of an object with rest mass is a
|
||
way of referring to the electric charge of such a particle, and the
|
||
gauge field theory about how it works can be explained ontologically
|
||
by thinking of the force field matter of an electric charges as
|
||
something that is imposed on space in a cyclic way as time passes, as
|
||
if the force were sent out from the object in regular pulses. If the
|
||
pulses of all negative charges throughout the universe were
|
||
synchronized, it would be possible to explain what is meant by
|
||
“orientation in a complex field,” for it would be the phase in
|
||
that cycle. Negatively charged particles would all be pulsing at the
|
||
same time, jointly setting up the force field in which they are
|
||
located. The pulses would propagate at the velocity of light, since
|
||
they are mediated by the inherent motion in space. And since the
|
||
force field that acts on the charged object is pulsating, its charge
|
||
must remain synchronized with the field, even though the particle may
|
||
be changing locations in space. Gauge bosons emerge from the field to
|
||
keep the charge synchronized, but they can do so only by exerting
|
||
forces on the particle that can change its motion, accelerating it in
|
||
one direction or another. Those forces are the electric and magnetic
|
||
forces described by Maxwell’s equations, and the gauge boson is the
|
||
virtual photon mentioned in explaining the quantum structure of the
|
||
atom. Virtual photons carry momentum and kinetic energy between
|
||
charged particles and the force-field matter the particles jointly
|
||
spread out in space by their pulses. They are the spin <i>1</i>
|
||
particles that mediate the electromagnetic force. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
difference between positive and negative charges could be explained
|
||
on this ontological explanation as having pulses with opposite phases
|
||
in that universally synchronized cycle. Particles that pulsate in
|
||
phase would repel one another, whereas particles that are pulsing out
|
||
of phase with one another would attract one another. This dependency
|
||
of the direction of the force on the phase of the universal pulsation
|
||
is the reason that there must be virtual bosons to keep charges
|
||
synchronized with the universal pulsation as the charged particles
|
||
move across the force field they help set up (the force-field matter
|
||
that comes from all the particles). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Partial
|
||
electric charges could likewise be explained as phases relative to
|
||
the universal electromagnetic pulsation (or as orientation in the
|
||
complex field) between the extremes of negative an positive. But in
|
||
order to take account of the magnetic force, the complex field in
|
||
which charges are oriented may be twofold, and the pulsation
|
||
correspondingly compounded.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[The
|
||
mathematics of quantum electrodynamics, and gauge field theories
|
||
generally, makes it difficult to figure out how a particle will move
|
||
and interact in the field. Richard Feynman discovered a relatively
|
||
simple way of doing so by identifying the path of least action from
|
||
all the possible paths the particle could follow (which is
|
||
ontologically, the path requiring the fewest quantum cycles). He
|
||
showed how it could be identified by rules for canceling out more
|
||
complicated, symmetrically opposite pathways and seeing what remains.
|
||
This was the foundation for his famous “Feynman diagrams,” which
|
||
depict electromagnetic interactions between particles as being
|
||
mediated by the exchange of photons. But the mathematics involved is
|
||
suspect in the minds of many, because the calculations lead to
|
||
infinite quantities, which can be eliminated only by hand, canceling
|
||
out those that are opposed symmetrically, in a process called
|
||
“renormalization.” There must be a deeper explanation of what is
|
||
going on.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[This
|
||
aspect of quantum electrodynamics and other gauge field theories can
|
||
be explained ontologically, I believe, in a way that involves the
|
||
waves we have assumed are sent out in the inherent motion by quantum
|
||
kinetic cycles. The symmetries that Feynman uses to determine the
|
||
path of least action can ultimately be explained ontologically by the
|
||
constructive and destructive interference of such waves (much as I
|
||
have used them to explain Bohm’s “quantum potential”). But it
|
||
is more complex, because the particle is carrying an electric charge
|
||
through the force field, and if the force field involves a universal
|
||
pulsation which constitutes the difference between positive and
|
||
negative charge, the virtual photons must be synchronized with it in
|
||
order to conserve the electric charge. I suspect there is some such
|
||
ontological explanation, but it would take a better grasp of the
|
||
mathematics than I have.]</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Strong
|
||
force.</i> The strong force is the force that accounts for the
|
||
nucleus of the atom. Being is about 100,000 times stronger as the
|
||
electromagnetic force, it holds protons and neutrons together despite
|
||
the strong repulsive forces among the positively charged protons. The
|
||
strong force does not affect electrons or neutrinos (or other
|
||
particles of their kinds). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
particles involved in the strong force are called “hadrons,” both
|
||
the particles affected by it and the particles whose exchange
|
||
mediates it. The strong force that holds the nucleons together is
|
||
mediated by the exchange of mesons (such as pions). But protons and
|
||
neutrons are only a two of many kinds of “baryons” that have been
|
||
discovered by accelerating particles to collide with one another at
|
||
very high energies, and various kinds of mesons have also been found
|
||
mediating interactions among them. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
neutron, for example, decays into a proton, an electron, and an
|
||
electron antineutrino, and there are many other kinds of baryons that
|
||
decay into protons or neutrinos, with similar kinds of debris. The
|
||
negatively charged pi meson (pion) decays into a negative mu lepton
|
||
(a heavier cousin of the electron) and an mu antineutrino. Again,
|
||
there are many kinds of mesons with various decay patterns, so of
|
||
which decay by way of a pion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The attempt
|
||
to explain the diversity in the kinds of baryons and mesons has led
|
||
to the recognition that hadrons are all composed of simpler objects,
|
||
called “quarks.” Baryons are constituted by triplets of quarks,
|
||
and that mesons are constituted by quark-antiquark pairs. There are
|
||
some six different kinds of quarks, each with an antiquark, though
|
||
only the two lowest energy quarks (<i>u </i>and <i>d</i> quarks) are
|
||
found in the nucleons of ordinary matter. Half the quarks have a
|
||
negative electric charge of 1/3, and half have a positive electric
|
||
charge of 2/3 (with their respective antiquarks having electric
|
||
charges with the opposite sign). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Interactions
|
||
among quarks are mediated by the "color" force. That is,
|
||
quarks have a “color charge” which makes them susceptible to the
|
||
color force, and quarks interact with one another by exchanging
|
||
gluons, the gauge particles of the color force. Gluons are,
|
||
therefore, bosons with an intrinsic spin of 1. They are massless
|
||
particles, like the photon. But unlike the photon, gluons are
|
||
themselves subject to the color force, that is, they exert color
|
||
forces on one another as well as on quarks. Photons, by contrast, do
|
||
not interact at all, except for their tendency as bosons to fall in
|
||
step with one another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The color
|
||
force has an unusual strength that keeps quarks confined in triplets
|
||
to baryons. When quarks are very near one another, the color force is
|
||
not very strong. But when the distance is increased, the color force
|
||
increases along with it. And if the distance increases enough for the
|
||
potential energy (or force-field matter) to constitute a quark and
|
||
antiquark pair, matter takes that form. The quark of the new
|
||
quark-antiquark pair replaces the quark that was being moved out of
|
||
the baryon, and the antiquark combines with the original quark from
|
||
the baryon to constitute a meson, which quickly decays. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order
|
||
for three different quarks of the same kind to help constitute a
|
||
single baryon, there must be three different “colors” of each
|
||
kind of quark. And according to the symmetry of the theory, eight
|
||
kinds of gluons are needed to mediate all the forces that hold among
|
||
three different kinds of quarks in constituting baryons. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Weak
|
||
force.</i> The weak force has long been recognized because of the
|
||
need for some force to explain the radioactive decay of natural
|
||
substances, such as radium. Natural substances send out particles
|
||
with rest mass from time to time which can be detected, and since
|
||
that suggested that they were somehow coming apart, a force was
|
||
needed to explain how it could happen. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The weak
|
||
force was soon also used to explain the decay of hadrons (baryons and
|
||
mesons) into more common particles, such as neutrons, protons,
|
||
electrons, and neutrinos, which were observed in high energy
|
||
collisions of particles in accelerators. Indeed, there are also
|
||
higher energy particles like the electron, such as the muon and tau
|
||
particle, which decay into the electron and an antineutrino (or if
|
||
they are positively charged, decay into a positively charged
|
||
electron, or positron, and neutrino), and those decay patterns were
|
||
also attributed to the weak force. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order to
|
||
explain these decay patterns on the model of gauge field theory, it
|
||
was recognized that every kind of particle carries a “weak charge,”
|
||
which makes it susceptible to the weak force. The weak force is
|
||
mediated by a kind of particle, which was originally called the
|
||
“intermediate vector boson,” but is not referred to as the “weak
|
||
boson” or “weakon.” As the gauge particle of the weak force,
|
||
the weakon is a boson with spin 1, and in order for electric charge
|
||
to be conserved in decay by the weak force, there had to be two
|
||
different kinds of weakons, one with a positive and one with a
|
||
negative charge (W<sup>- </sup><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">and</font>
|
||
W<sup>+)</sup>. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It is
|
||
called the weak force, because it is so much more difficult to make
|
||
particles interact in this way than by the strong force (or even that
|
||
the electromagnetic force, which is about 100 times weaker than the
|
||
strong force). (The weak force is about 10<sup>-6</sup> times the
|
||
strength of the strong force, whereas the electric force is 10<sup>-2</sup>
|
||
times the strong force.) According to recognized principles, the
|
||
weakon could still actually be a force comparable in strength to the
|
||
photon, if the weakness of the weakon were due to having a
|
||
considerable mass. But the assumption that the weakon had such a mass
|
||
spoiled the gauge theory: the weakon could no longer represented by
|
||
Yang-Mills mathematics. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In one of
|
||
the most famous discoveries of the past few decades, Weinberg and
|
||
Salam independently discovered a way to give the weakon a mass
|
||
without spoiling its role as the particle of a gauge theory. This was
|
||
to postulate the so-called Higgs boson and to assume that such
|
||
particles exist everywhere in space. The Higgs boson has a spin of 0,
|
||
lacking any orientation at all in a magnetic field. But to postulate
|
||
their existence everywhere in space was to postulate the existence of
|
||
a new field that has minimum energy when it is exerting a force
|
||
everywhere in space. That force could be used to explain why a boson,
|
||
such as the weakon, that is otherwise massless has a mass. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Weinberg
|
||
recognized that this explanation of the mass of the weakon implied
|
||
that, in addition to the negatively charged and positively charged
|
||
weakons, there is a weakon that does not carry an electric charge at
|
||
all (<i>Z</i><sup><i>0</i></sup>). Interactions involving the <i>Z</i><sup><i>0</i></sup>
|
||
would not change the electric charges of the particles, but only
|
||
their motion, as in an elastic collision, and when evidence for such
|
||
“neutral currents” was found, it was recognized that Weinberg had
|
||
discovered a theory that explained both electromagnetism (how charges
|
||
interact by way of virtual photons) and the weak force (how particles
|
||
generally interact by way of virtual weakons). It is sometimes called
|
||
the “electroweak force.” (The color force, however, resists
|
||
assimilation to that theory. Though it is possible to construct the
|
||
appropriate equations describing gluons as the gauge particle
|
||
mediating interactions among quarks (and gluons), it has not been
|
||
possible to figure out what the equations imply.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Gravitation.
|
||
</i>The success of gauge field theories in representing the other
|
||
forces of nature has led to attempts to represent gravitation as
|
||
force that is likewise mediated by the exchange of particles from an
|
||
underlying field. The “charge” on which the gravitational force
|
||
works is mass, and the gauge particle that mediates the gravitational
|
||
force is called the “graviton.” However, in order to serve this
|
||
function, it must be a boson with a spin of 2, and the attempt to
|
||
integrate this force with the other three forces of nature what has
|
||
led to superstring theory and the belief that there are as many as
|
||
ten dimensions to space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though the
|
||
mathematics of superstring theory is supposedly elegant, the need to
|
||
recognize additional dimensions of space, if nothing else, makes it
|
||
suspect. And it can be avoided, as we have seen, by recognizing that
|
||
space is a basically different kind of substance from matter.
|
||
Assuming that there is an inherent motion in space by which bits of
|
||
matter coincide with parts of space (and that <i>is </i>possible, as
|
||
we have seen, by the spatiomaterialist explanation of the truth of
|
||
Einstein’s special theory of relativity), gravitation can be
|
||
explained as an acceleration of an inherent motion in space. That is
|
||
the spatiomaterialist explanation of Einstein’s general theory of
|
||
relativity. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is a
|
||
radical departure from contemporary physics, because without
|
||
recognizing that space is a substance, it has no other way to explain
|
||
gravitation than as just another field that holds among particles.
|
||
That is what leads to the belief that gravitation is mediated by
|
||
gravitons and poses what is the most formidable problem for
|
||
contemporary physics: connecting gravitation with the other forces of
|
||
nature. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Substantivalism
|
||
about space makes it possible, however, to explain basic particles in
|
||
a way that may be similar to superstring theory, but without the
|
||
extra dimensions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_06" align="right" hspace="5" width="200" height="29" border="0">atalogue
|
||
of basic particles.</b></i> Let us catalogue the basic objects that
|
||
are currently recognized by physics, and then we shall see how we
|
||
might account for all of them quite simply, given our ontology. The
|
||
objects that are currently taken to be basic include both bosons and
|
||
fermions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
bosons are the particles mediating the forces. According to current
|
||
gauge theories, there are bosons for each of the four forces,
|
||
including the graviton to mediate the gravitational forces. (See
|
||
diagram of Basic Particles of Physics.)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img 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" name="BasicParticles" align="bottom" width="504" height="347" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Current
|
||
explanations of the weak force requires the postulation a Higgs
|
||
boson, with a spin of 0, to give weakons (and other particles) their
|
||
rest masses.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Three
|
||
weakons mediate the weak force: W<sup>+</sup>, W<sup>-</sup>, and Z<sup>0,</sup>
|
||
each with a spin of 1. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The photon
|
||
is the gauge boson that mediates the electromagnetic force. It also
|
||
has a spin of 1. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Eight
|
||
gluons mediate the color force, each with a spin of 1. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
graviton is the boson that is supposed to mediate gravitational
|
||
forces, but it can be set aside, since I have already explained
|
||
gravitation without the need for any such particle.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Fermions
|
||
are particles that obey the Pauli exclusion principle and have a
|
||
point-like location in space. There are two broad classes, leptons
|
||
and hadrons. The hadrons are distinguished by their susceptibility to
|
||
the strong force, while leptons are immune. Electrons are the most
|
||
famous members of the lepton group. Their masses are well defined,
|
||
and their name, meaning “light ones,” comes from being so much
|
||
lighter particles than hadrons (and even than quarks). But some
|
||
physicists suspect that neutrinos may not be quite massless. There
|
||
are six leptons in all, and each has an antiparticle. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The first
|
||
family of leptons includes the electron and the electron neutrino.
|
||
The electron has a charge of –1 and a mass of 0.5 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>,
|
||
whereas the electron neutrino has no charge and there is not much
|
||
reason to believe it has any mass at all. The antiparticle of the
|
||
electron is the positive electron, or positron, with a charge of +1,
|
||
and the antiparticle of the electron neutrino is the electron
|
||
antineutrino, with neither charge nor rest mass. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The second
|
||
lepton family is composed of the muon and the muon neutrino. The muon
|
||
has a negative charge and a mass of about 106 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>,whereas
|
||
the muon neutrino has no charge and no rest mass. Again, both members
|
||
of this family of leptons have an antiparticle, the positively
|
||
charged muon and the muon antineutrino, without any charge or rest
|
||
mass. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The third
|
||
lepton family is composed of the tau particle, with a negative charge
|
||
and a mass of 1784 MeV/c<sup>2</sup> and the tau neutrino. Both have
|
||
antiparticles with properties similar to the first two families of
|
||
leptons. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Hadrons
|
||
are the objects affected by the strong force, and they are made of
|
||
quarks, as we have seen. (Baryons have three quarks each, whereas
|
||
mesons are made up of a quark and antiquark.) Let us inventory the
|
||
quarks, since hadrons have already been reduced to them. Most
|
||
commentators are struck by how the quarks also fall into three
|
||
families, with two particles each, both with antiparticles. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The first
|
||
family of quarks includes the d and u quarks, and an antiparticle for
|
||
each. The d quark has a charge of -1/3, while the u quark has a
|
||
charge of +2/3, setting the pattern for all three families. The
|
||
masses of quarks are not well defined, because they cannot be
|
||
released from confinement in baryons or mesons, but the d and u
|
||
quarks do not appear to be over 100MeV/c<sup>2</sup> (and may be
|
||
considerably less). Their antiparticles are antiquarks, with opposite
|
||
electric charges, that is, anti-d, with +1/3 and anti-u, with –2/3.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The second
|
||
family includes the s quark and the c quark, and their antiparticles.
|
||
The s quark, with a charge of –1/3, resembles the d quark, but it
|
||
has a mass of about 200 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>. The c quark likewise
|
||
resembles the u quark, except it has a mass of about 2000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>.
|
||
Their antiquarks have the same masses, but opposite electric charges.
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The third
|
||
family includes the b and t quarks. The b quark resembles the d and s
|
||
quarks, with a charge of –1/3, while the t quark, with a charge of
|
||
+2/3, resembles the u and c quarks. Again the main difference is in
|
||
mass. The b quark has a mass of about 5000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>, while
|
||
the t quark has a mass of about 175000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup>. Their
|
||
antiquarks have opposite electric charges. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
accompanying diagram listing all the basic particles recognized by
|
||
physics suggests the deep symmetry that is believed to hold between
|
||
the quarks and leptons. Each has three families; two members have
|
||
different electric charges; all particles have antiparticles, and all
|
||
are subject to the weak force. Together with the bosons required for
|
||
the three forces of nature, including gravitation, there is a total
|
||
of 38 particles. (But there are only 37 to explain, since gravitation
|
||
has already been explained by the nature of space as a substance.)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">A<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_07" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="56" border="0">
|
||
spatiomaterialist theory of basic particles.</font> The basic
|
||
particles of physics are described by mathematical theories, which
|
||
have been accepted as the best efficient-cause explanation of
|
||
precise, surprising measurements, and they constrain what can be said
|
||
about basic particles in many subtle ways. What I will present here
|
||
is, by contrast, a mostly geometrical story about the basic
|
||
particles, or rather, the beginnings of a geometrical theory. It
|
||
comes from using spatiomaterialism and its explanation of other parts
|
||
of physics to constrain further our beliefs about the basic
|
||
particles. They must be constituted by bits of matter that coincide
|
||
with space in some way or another, and since space has a three
|
||
dimensional geometrical structure with an inherent motion connecting
|
||
all the parts of space in time, these most basic forms of matter must
|
||
have a spatio-temporal structure of some kind. What is presented here
|
||
is one way that could be true. There may be other ways it could be
|
||
true. And the one presented here is merely the model for a set of
|
||
more specific theories that may be elaborated in different ways. My
|
||
purpose is to show how adding the ontological constraints of
|
||
spatiomaterialism to the mathematical constraints of the standard
|
||
model opens up the possibility of a geometrical model of the basic
|
||
particles.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is, once again, an ontological explanation of why current theories
|
||
about the basic particles are true, and its advantage over purely
|
||
mathematical theories is that it reduces the number of basic
|
||
assumptions that need to be made. To be sure, spatiomaterialism makes
|
||
a big assumption that contemporary physics does not make — that
|
||
space is a substance enduring through time, indeed, one with an
|
||
inherent motion. But that will enable us to reduce the 37 particles
|
||
recognized as basic by contemporary physics to, at most, only ten
|
||
particles. Or even fewer, it might be argued, though that issue can
|
||
be put off until we discover whether such ontologically based
|
||
speculation is useful. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The ten
|
||
basic particles we shall postulate are the photon, the three weakons,
|
||
<i>W</i><sup><i>-</i></sup>, <i>W</i><sup><i>+</i></sup>, and <i>Z</i><sup><i>0</i></sup>,
|
||
three neutrinos, electron, muon and tau, and their three
|
||
antineutrinos. In one way or another, each involves a new assumption
|
||
about the nature of matter, space and how they are related. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But it is
|
||
conceivable that the photon can be explained as another form of
|
||
weakon, and the six neutrinos may be just properties of space, that
|
||
is, aspects of its relationship to weakon. Hence, a spatiomaterialist
|
||
world may be made of nothing but space and three kinds of weakons. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
explanation of the nature of the basic particles is based on the
|
||
assumptions we have already made about the nature of matter in order
|
||
to explain the truth of the basic laws of classical physics,
|
||
relativity theory, and quantum mechanics. Quantum matter is
|
||
ultimately constituted by quantum events, which are basic and can
|
||
coincide with space in various ways, and since they are cyclic, they
|
||
constitute bits of matter that endure through time. The total energy
|
||
or mass of a bit of quantum matter is simply the number of quantum
|
||
cycles per second that constitute its existence. Since the photon is
|
||
the simplest and plainest form of quantum event that we considered,
|
||
let me recall what has been said about it.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">An
|
||
independently existing photon is a complete cycle of electric and
|
||
magnetic forces. Those forces interact in a way that enables them to
|
||
be repeated indefinitely. But since each cycle is a quantum event
|
||
with the size of Planck’s constant, <i>h</i>, it either occurs as a
|
||
whole or not at all. The total energy, or matter, in a photon depends
|
||
on the number of cycles per second, as required by the physical law,
|
||
<i>E = hf.</i> But the photon coincides with space in a way
|
||
that makes it move with the inherent motion in some direction of
|
||
space. Thus, it also has a wavelength, which is inversely
|
||
proportional to its momentum, as required by the equation, <i>p = h/</i></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The photon
|
||
has an intrinsic spin of 1, which implies that there are three
|
||
different ways it could be oriented in a magnetic field. Two faces
|
||
have a magnetic moment, positive or negative, corresponding to the
|
||
two ways that light can be polarized. (If you follow the photon
|
||
through space, the electric force rotates around to the right or left
|
||
in space, which determines it circular polarization, but the
|
||
difference between these properties is quantum mechanically
|
||
equivalent to photons being polarized in mutually perpendicular
|
||
directions as they pass through a filter.) And the third way that a
|
||
spin 1 boson can interact in a magnetic field involves having no
|
||
magnetic moment at all, as if there were a face in which the two
|
||
possible orientations of spin were perfectly balanced. But the photon
|
||
apparently loses the ability to interact from that “zero face,”
|
||
as I will call it, because it is moving through space with the
|
||
inherent motion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Though the
|
||
photon has energy, it has no rest mass. It might make it seem that
|
||
its energy must come from its motion across space, like a form of
|
||
kinetic energy. But that is not quite right, if its motion is due to
|
||
the inherent motion in space. We are assuming that its energy comes
|
||
from the cycles of quantum actions that are carried out by the
|
||
exertion of electric and magnetic forces. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The photon
|
||
is the gauge boson of the electromagnetic field, and on our
|
||
ontological interpretation of gauge field theories, that means that
|
||
electric and magnetic forces arise from space to act on a particle
|
||
with an electric charge when it moves across space. At rest, the
|
||
charged particle is a pulsating force in the surrounding space, which
|
||
is synchronized with the pulsations of particles with the same charge
|
||
throughout the universe (and 180<sup>0</sup> out of phase with the
|
||
pulsations of particles with the opposite charge). Since a magnetic
|
||
force is also involved, it is a complex pulsation, perhaps, with
|
||
internal cycles in two different planes. The electric and magnetic
|
||
forces that arise from space to keep its pulsations in synch as the
|
||
charged particle moves across space are the electric and magnetic
|
||
forces, which were described by Maxwell. They are the same forces
|
||
that can be coupled and exist independently as photons (for example,
|
||
as a result of charged objects oscillating back and forth, as in
|
||
antennas).</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
photon introduces most of the properties that basic objects have, and
|
||
in order to explain the other basic particles, we must postulate the
|
||
existence of two other varieties of particles, weakons and neutrinos.
|
||
All the other particles, both charged leptons and quarks, will be
|
||
explained as combinations of neutrinos and weakons. The interaction
|
||
between them is the weak force, on this ontological theory. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>W<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAE8AAAAPCAMAAACSsmLYAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpyMSZlMSZGPjA4MSYqJR18AAB2AABmAABYAAAcGBNLAABEAAANDAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADzBJNpAAAAyUlEQVR4nLXT2wrCMBAE0Gmz2WyIJtF66///qLOi4FsLxqHQtAuHSUNxGhuc1qHBecXArFjo6QQR3r4n+QfPIkpFtO9J+8EL2b0s0NYFobfsnhZM1ZdWW2Hh1sJOD202C2zUJFbyduUy0kiKErw+Z31bc291ryYRo3Q1U2iVTq/zc5q8L3piPe71Egs9EhGVhGTR+6EohPT09rJY2rvfmV10BqZkwXepr8M2Hrvxrcz+FE03uY83LP/wxv5vy+E4MAcsl9t9WG6XJ6YcJ00YiSp9AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCLCos_08" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="33" border="0">eakons.
|
||
</b></i>The nature of weakons can be described in much the same terms
|
||
that were used to describe the photon above. Weakons are also spin 1
|
||
bosons, for they are the gauge particles of the weak force. Given or
|
||
theory about the nature of quantum matter, we assume that weakons are
|
||
constituted by cycles of quantum events, and thus, what makes them
|
||
different from photons is presumably coinciding with space in a
|
||
different way. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Rest
|
||
mass.</i> One basic difference between photons and weakons is that
|
||
weakons have a rest mass, whereas photons are massless. Indeed,
|
||
weakons have a sizable rest mass, about 80,000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup> for
|
||
the charged weakons and over 90,000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup> for the neutral
|
||
weakon. That is nearly one hundred times the rest mass of the proton.
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Rest mass
|
||
is the property that made it impossible to explain weakons as the
|
||
gauge particle of the weak field on the model of photons in the
|
||
electromagnetic field, since gauge bosons are massless, according to
|
||
Yang-Mills field theory. What makes Yang-Mills field theory so
|
||
attractive is that particles interact the same way regardless of
|
||
scale. They are, in other words, “gauge invariant.” But if one
|
||
simply assumes that gauge particles have a rest mass, then the
|
||
particles are no longer invariant under a gauge transformation. When
|
||
the relevant particles are described on a much smaller scale, as if
|
||
we were looking at them through a microscope, their mass decreases to
|
||
the vanishing point. Mass in not gauge invariant. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In order to
|
||
give the gauge particle of the weak field a rest mass, therefore,
|
||
physicists postulate another kind of particle, the Higgs boson, which
|
||
is the gauge boson of yet another field. Unlike the weakon and the
|
||
photon, which have a spin of 1, the Higgs boson has a spin of 0,
|
||
meaning that it does not line up at all in the magnetic field. But it
|
||
gives weakons a mass, only if Higgs bosons are located everywhere in
|
||
space. Thus, it is assumed that the Higgs field is in a condition of
|
||
least energy when there are Higgs particles everywhere. But the Higgs
|
||
boson is a force with a certain strength (which enables the weakon to
|
||
resist acceleration so that it tends to stay at rest), and so that is
|
||
to say that the Higgs field has least energy when its force is
|
||
strongest everywhere. This is paradoxical, because the energy
|
||
associated with every other force of nature increases with the
|
||
strength of the force. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Notice,
|
||
however, that although this description of what gives the weakon a
|
||
rest mass is paradoxical only when it is assumed that it is a
|
||
description of matter. It is not paradoxical at all as a description
|
||
of space. Space has no energy (it is not matter), but since it is a
|
||
substance, it can exert a force. If the weakon’s relationship to
|
||
space is what gives it a rest mass, it is not surprising that the
|
||
force is exerted everywhere. Nor is it surprising that that is the
|
||
condition of least energy, because it does not involve any energy at
|
||
all. Thus, since we have already postulated the existence of space as
|
||
a substance for other reasons, we can explain the rest mass of
|
||
weakons without postulating Higgs bosons. We can take talk of Higgs
|
||
particles to be a way of referring to space.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
function of the Higgs mechanism can be served by recognizing that
|
||
quantum cycle have another way of coinciding with space. Instead of
|
||
being picked up by the inherent motion and laying out their cycles as
|
||
a certain wavelength in space, the quantum cycles of weakons have a
|
||
purely rotational motion, and so they can be at rest in space. We
|
||
assume that when quantum cycles coincide with space at rest, their
|
||
matter has the form of rest mass, that is, the matter resists
|
||
acceleration by a force. Weakons can, of course, be accelerated, and
|
||
their rest mass determines, as we have seen, the scale of the quantum
|
||
kinetic cycles that move these particles across space as time passes.
|
||
But that role of rest mass comes from their relationship to space,
|
||
not to Higgs bosons.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Like
|
||
photons, weakons are bosons with an intrinsic spin of 1. That means
|
||
that there are three different ways that a weakon and interact in a
|
||
magnetic field. That means, as we shall assume, that each and every
|
||
weakon has all three ways of interacting, and which way they interact
|
||
depends on how they are oriented in the field. Taken geometrically,
|
||
each way of interacting in a magnetic field can be pictured as a
|
||
different <i>face </i>of the particle.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
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" name="Weakons" align="bottom" width="400" height="200" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Two of the
|
||
faces correspond to spin up and spin down, that is, having a positive
|
||
or negative moment in the magnetic field. Each such face can be
|
||
represented as a direction of rotation along an axis parallel to the
|
||
direction of its motion, yielding two possibilities, left-handed spin
|
||
and right-handed spin, as depicted in the accompanying diagram. These
|
||
two faces are all that a particle with ½ spin has, and so as a first
|
||
approximation, it could be represented as rotational quantum cycles
|
||
of some kind which could be oriented in opposite directions relative
|
||
to the magnetic field. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">A spin 1
|
||
particle has a third face by which it can be oriented in a magnetic
|
||
field in which it has no magnetic moment at all. But in the case of
|
||
the weakon, we cannot hold that this <i>zero face </i>is lost by
|
||
moving through space with the inherent motion of space, because
|
||
weakons can be at rest. Instead, we have to admit that the weakon can
|
||
interact in a way in which its two faces, with opposite orientations
|
||
of spin, are somehow perfectly balanced. That suggests that we think
|
||
of the weakon, not as a rotation which can interact only from either
|
||
side of its axis, but as a rotating cylinder. If it is oriented so
|
||
that one end is interacting with the magnetic field, it is rotating
|
||
in one direction, and if it is turned around so that it interacts
|
||
from with its opposite side, it is rotating in the opposite direction
|
||
with a magnetic moment of the opposite sign. But if the cylinder
|
||
interacts with the magnetic field from its side, it has no net
|
||
rotation in the magnetic field, and its other faces are balanced
|
||
against one another. That is how its zero face will be represented
|
||
geometrically. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Electric
|
||
charge.</i> There are three kinds of weakons. Two have electric
|
||
charges, with signs opposite to one another, and the third weakon is
|
||
neutral. These are different kinds of weakons, not faces of each
|
||
weakon. But given out assumption about the nature of the
|
||
electromagnetic field, their charges can be explained as opposite
|
||
ways of relating to the universal, electromagnetic pulsation, which
|
||
is mediated by the inherent motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
electric charge is what is conserved by virtual photons, as the gauge
|
||
bosons of the electromagnetic field. Since we are assuming that the
|
||
forces of an electric charge are exerted in pulses that are perfectly
|
||
synchronized with similar pulsations by other particles with the same
|
||
charge wherever they are located in the universe, we can explain why
|
||
like charges repel. And since opposite charges are 180<sup>0</sup>
|
||
out of phase, particles with opposite charge should attract one
|
||
another. (We have also assumed that the pulsations have an additional
|
||
complexity that accounts for the magnetic forces.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">These
|
||
electromagnetic pulsations are independent of the rotational quantum
|
||
cycles we have been describing in order to explain the three faces of
|
||
spin orientation. Their intrinsic spin lines the particles up in a
|
||
certain way in the magnetic field, but the direction of the electric
|
||
and magnetic forces they feel depends on the gauge bosons that arise
|
||
from the electromagnetic field in a way that keeps their pulsations
|
||
synchronized as they move across space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[We shall
|
||
simply assume that weakons can have electric charges (and that they
|
||
can exist without them), as a basic property of weakons. But there
|
||
may be a simpler ontological explanation. Since weakons and photons
|
||
are both constituted by quantum cycles, it is conceivable that the
|
||
charged weakon is simply a photon at rest, or to take the weakon as
|
||
basic, that the photon is simply a weakon that is moving across
|
||
space. Though the weakon may have an electric charge when it is at
|
||
rest, its zero face (without any magnetic moment) may be engaged with
|
||
the inherent motion so that moves it across space at the velocity of
|
||
light. In that case, it loses is rest mass and its electric charge is
|
||
disengaged from the universal pulsation and becomes an electric force
|
||
that is exerted in time with the rotations of its intrinsic spin,
|
||
marking out the wavelengths of light. But when this particle is at
|
||
rest, its cycles of electric forces are exerted from a point in
|
||
space, and that geometrical configuration could be the radial field
|
||
of the electric charge of the weakon, whose pulsations are
|
||
synchronized with the pulsations of like particles everywhere. This
|
||
would simplify the ontological explanation of basic particles even
|
||
further, but I will leave it here as just a possibility.]</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Weak
|
||
charge.</i> The weakon is the gauge particle of the weak force, and
|
||
though it can act on other weakons, it needs fermions on which to
|
||
act, and that is the role of neutrinos. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>N<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_09" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="35" border="0">eutrinos.</b></i>
|
||
The other kind of basic particle we must postulate is the neutrino,
|
||
though as I suggested, it might be just an aspect of space in its
|
||
interaction with weakons. The neutrino is a fermion, an opposite kind
|
||
of particle from bosons, because it excludes other particles of the
|
||
same kind from occupying the same quantum state (including location
|
||
in space). Its spin of ½ means that it should have two possible
|
||
orientation by which it can interact in a magnetic field, one face
|
||
with a positive magnetic moment and another face with a negative
|
||
magnetic moment. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Fermions
|
||
can be represented geometrically as a rotational motion of some kind.
|
||
From one side, a fermion would be rotating in one direction, whereas
|
||
from the other side, it would be rotating in the opposite direction.
|
||
There are, however, various kinds of rotation that could constitute a
|
||
fermion, on this ontological theory, and let me emphasize that,
|
||
though the frequency of the rotation or circular motion may vary, the
|
||
magnetic moment is quantized. That is, the strength of the magnetic
|
||
moment is a fixed quantity that does not depend on how fast it is
|
||
rotating. That is just how basic particles coincide with space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Varieties
|
||
of neutrinos.</i> Neutrinos differ from one another in two ways, by
|
||
size and spin.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are
|
||
three sizes of neutrinos: the electron neutrino, which is the
|
||
biggest, the muon neutrino, which is smaller, and the tau neutrino,
|
||
which is the smallest of all three. It is not impossible that there
|
||
are even smaller neutrinos, and I will suggest how they would be
|
||
incorporated in this theory later. Furthermore, we shall assume that
|
||
the spin of the neutrino is more like a motion around a circular
|
||
pathway than it is the simple rotation of an object, and thus, the
|
||
size of each kind of neutrino is the size of its circular pathway. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The spin of
|
||
neutrinos are seen as problematic, because they violate the principle
|
||
that fermions have two possible orientations by which they can
|
||
interact in a magnetic field. Neutrinos have only a left-handed spin,
|
||
that is, they rotate counterclockwise along an axis parallel to the
|
||
direction of their motion. There are no neutrinos with a right-handed
|
||
spin. Or at least, the weak force interacts only with left-handed
|
||
neutrinos. (This is a violation of a symmetry recognized in
|
||
particles, called “parity,” in which it is required that it also
|
||
be possible for their structures and interactions to occur as if
|
||
reflected in a mirror.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
antineutrino, the antiparticle of the neutrino, however, does have a
|
||
right-handed spin; that is, it rotates clockwise in the direction of
|
||
its motion. Thus, for each neutrino, there is an antineutrino of the
|
||
same size, but with the opposite orientation of spin. What is
|
||
problematic about the spin of the neutrino is, therefore, that the
|
||
distinction between being the same particle with the opposite
|
||
orientation of spin and being the antiparticle breaks down in the
|
||
case of the neutrino. That may be problematic mathematically, but it
|
||
is not an ontological problem. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">On this
|
||
theory, neutrinos are special because they are elements that
|
||
constitute other particles and, thereby, explain their properties,
|
||
and it would not be surprising if the simplest particles do not have
|
||
all the properties of the particles they explain. Thus, we will
|
||
assume that neutrinos, as fermions, have two faces by which they can
|
||
interact in a magnetic field, but that the opposite orientation of
|
||
spin is also the antiparticle. Neutrinos have a left-handed spin
|
||
along an axis parallel to the direction of their motion, whereas
|
||
those with a right-handed spin are antineutrinos. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The reason
|
||
the difference in orientation of spin gets confused with the
|
||
difference between particle and antiparticle is that “antiparticles”
|
||
is defined in terms of opposite electric charge, or “charge
|
||
conjugation,” and we shall see how their opposite orientations in
|
||
spin give neutrinos and antineutrinos different relationships to
|
||
electric charges. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Relationship
|
||
to space.</i> Though I am counting neutrinos as basic particles, they
|
||
will be explained ontologically in a way that may be come down to
|
||
reducing them to an aspect of space. That is possible, because space
|
||
is a substance, and its circular motion could be just an additional
|
||
aspect of the inherent motion. Let us assume, accordingly, that there
|
||
is at every point in space at least three kinds of motion that travel
|
||
around in circles. Each goes both ways, and they are found in every
|
||
plane of three dimensional space. There is a largest size for such
|
||
circular pathways, which determines the longest period for a complete
|
||
circuit, and circular pathways with shorter radii have shorter
|
||
periods, with more complete circuits per second. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The idea is
|
||
that there exists both a neutrino and antineutrino of all three kinds
|
||
at every point in space. These circular motions are another aspect of
|
||
space, like the inherent motion and presumably connected with the
|
||
inherent motion in some way. Although these pairs of circular
|
||
pathways do not have any linear motion through space (except for the
|
||
motion of the inherent motion itself in a gravitational field), they
|
||
do not have rest mass in space, because they are just parts of space
|
||
itself. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We assume
|
||
that there is an angular momentum associated with each circular
|
||
motion, which would give it a moment of force in a magnetic field
|
||
(explaining its intrinsic spin). That is to say that these circular
|
||
pathways are oriented relative to the magnetic field. But since
|
||
neutrino and antineutrino exist together, their angular momentums
|
||
cancel out. They are neutralized, because they are circular motions
|
||
in opposite directions. Thus, these circular pathways in space do not
|
||
usually have any effect on what happens. Photons pass right through
|
||
them, as do particles with rest mass, as if there was only space at
|
||
that location.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is to
|
||
explain the neutrino ontologically in an opposite way from weakons.
|
||
Unlike weakons, which have a rest mass that can be explained
|
||
ontologically by the quantum cycles per second, neutrinos have no
|
||
rest mass. At least, nothing in the theory requires them to have a
|
||
rest, and experiments show that it cannot have more mass than about
|
||
12 eV/c<sup>2</sup>. Thus, they may not even be constituted by
|
||
quantum cycles, like forms of quantum matter. They could be simply
|
||
aspects of space, because as we assumed, the magnetic field in which
|
||
they are oriented is just an aspect of space (a form of force-field
|
||
matter). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Interaction
|
||
with weakons.</i> Though neutrinos do not have an electric charge,
|
||
they do have a weak charge. That is, they interact with weakons. But
|
||
weakons exist only as pairs with opposite orientations of spin, and
|
||
thus, we shall assume that the weakon can act on neutrinos by
|
||
extracting one of these circular pathways from space and using it to
|
||
travel around in circles. The weakon and the circular pathways are
|
||
both oriented in the magnetic field, and when the weakon latches onto
|
||
a such pathway with a circular motion in one direction, and it
|
||
releases the pathway with opposite circular motion. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since the
|
||
released neutrino has no rest mass, it moves away from its former
|
||
partner at the velocity of light. That is what physics assumes,
|
||
though we shall explain its motion as due to the inherent motion in
|
||
space. It engages with the inherent motion and thereby acquires the
|
||
velocity of light. The released neutrino is just a bit of angular
|
||
momentum that propagates through space, and it will not interact with
|
||
anything, unless it runs into a weakon.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Weakons act
|
||
on neutrino-antineutrino pairs where they are located, but how they
|
||
act on such a pair depends on the charge of the weakon. A negatively
|
||
charged weakon extracts a circular pathway with a left-handed
|
||
circular motion relative to the direction of the magnetic field, and
|
||
thus, it releases an antineutrino, that is, a neutrino with a
|
||
right-handed circular motion. Correspondingly, a positively charged
|
||
weakon extracts a circular pathway with a right-handed circular
|
||
motion, and since that is an antineutrino, what it releases is a
|
||
neutrino, which runs off with the inherent motion. The 180<sup>0</sup>
|
||
difference in the phases of pulsations of the positive and negative
|
||
charges of weakons corresponds, therefore, to the right-handed and
|
||
left-handed spins of neutrinos. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_10" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="35" border="0">harged
|
||
leptons. </b></i>This interaction between charged weakons and
|
||
neutrinos affords an ontological explanation of charged leptons. The
|
||
member of the neutrino pair that is retained by the weakon is used as
|
||
a pathway to guide its own motion, transforming the weakon into a
|
||
charged lepton, such as a tau particle, a muon, or an electron. Let
|
||
us see how the properties of a charged lepton can be explained by
|
||
this combination.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Electric
|
||
charge. </i>The weakon that interacts with the neutrino-antineutrino
|
||
pair has an electric charge, and since electric charge is conserved,
|
||
the charge is inherited by the lepton created by this weakon-neutrino
|
||
interaction. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Negatively
|
||
charged weakons extract neutrinos from space to use as their new
|
||
pathway, and thus, negatively charged leptons contain a neutrino and
|
||
they release an antineutrino. Positively charged weakons, on the
|
||
other hand, extract an antineutrino for themselves and release the
|
||
neutrino. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[It would
|
||
be possible to formulate a theory like this by holding that the
|
||
weakon simply acquires a new kind angular momentum from space and
|
||
explaining the antineutrino as simply a form of angular momentum that
|
||
remains in space as its way of conserving momentum. That might be a
|
||
simpler theory, which emphasizes that neutrinos are just aspects of
|
||
space, but it would leave out how space supplies the angular momentum
|
||
that the lepton acquires as the weakon changes to a fermion. Thus, I
|
||
will continue to describe the near basic particles as being
|
||
constituted in part by neutrinos, if only to keep track of what space
|
||
is contributing to their structures.]</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The neutral
|
||
weakon, <i>Z</i><sup><i>0</i></sup>, does not interact with
|
||
neutrino-antineutrino pairs at all. It mediates purely elastic
|
||
collisions among particles with a weak charge. The electromagnetic
|
||
pulsation of the electric charge is presumably what engages with
|
||
space to extract neutrinos from them (suggesting that the circular
|
||
motion of the neutrino and antineutrino is synchronized with the
|
||
universal pulsation of negative and positive charges, respectively). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Rest
|
||
mass.</i> Let us assume that the weakon interacts with the neutrino
|
||
from its neutral face, that is, from the side of the cylindrical
|
||
boson. Such a geometrical relationship is possible, since both
|
||
particles are assumed to be lined up with the magnetic field. We have
|
||
assumed that the cylinder is rotating, presumably with each rotation
|
||
being a quantum cycle, so that the frequency of its quantum cycles
|
||
explains its rest mass. It has a large rest mass, but if we assume
|
||
that, when it interacts with a neutrino, its own rotation becomes a
|
||
circular motion along the neutrino pathway, we can explain why the
|
||
charged lepton has less rest mass than the weakon.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since each
|
||
circuit around such a circular pathway would take longer than one of
|
||
the simple rotations that constitute the rest mass of the weakon,
|
||
there are fewer quantum cycles per second in the new lepton, giving
|
||
the composite particle a lower rest mass. But matter is conserved.
|
||
The quantum cycles that previously constituted the rest mass of the
|
||
weakon do not drop out of existence, but rather are converted into
|
||
quantum kinetic cycles, which give the new particle with a smaller
|
||
rest mass a velocity relative to the inherent motion. (Momentum is
|
||
conserved, because the antineutrino that takes off some direction in
|
||
space with the inherent motion has an equal and opposite momentum.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are,
|
||
however, at least three different sizes of circular pathways in
|
||
space, and the smaller the circular pathway, the shorter the period
|
||
and the greater the rest mass. Since a weakon has an enormous mass,
|
||
it would usually become a tau particle or a muon before it became an
|
||
electron. When a negatively charged weakon extracts a tau neutrino
|
||
from space, for example, it releases a tau antineutrino. But since
|
||
the muon and electron have longer pathways, requiring fewer quantum
|
||
cycles per second, the tau particle can decay further. What remains
|
||
of the negative weakon in the tau particle will release its tau
|
||
neutrino, extract, say, a muon neutrino from space and release a muon
|
||
antineutrino (with surplus matter converted to kinetic energy).
|
||
Likewise, the muon would decay into an electron by releasing its muon
|
||
neutrino, extracting an electron neutrino from space, and releasing
|
||
the electron antineutrino to run off with the inherent motion. The
|
||
electron is the last step, because it is the largest circular pathway
|
||
possible in space, requiring the fewest quantum cycles per second.
|
||
These are the decay patterns of weakons and charged leptons that have
|
||
been found by physics, though they are explained here ontologically,
|
||
by the size of the circular pathways provided by the neutrinos. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Spin.
|
||
</i>Intrinsic spin angular momentum is also conserved in the creation
|
||
of a charged lepton, though in a curious way that might explain a
|
||
couple of otherwise puzzling fact about leptons. The neutrino has no
|
||
rest mass of its own, but when it is used as a pathway by a weakon,
|
||
the composite particle acquires rest mass, which enables the lepton
|
||
to be at rest in space. Thus, though free neutrinos lose one of their
|
||
faces to the inherent motion, the captured neutrino can give the
|
||
lepton it helps constitute a spin of 1/2 , with two faces from which
|
||
it can interact in a magnetic field. With a weakon on its circular
|
||
pathway, it has a rest mass and can turn around. Thus, it can be
|
||
oriented in either way in a magnetic field. In one case, it will have
|
||
a left-handed spin along an axis parallel to its motion in the
|
||
magnetic field, and in the other case it will have a right-handed
|
||
spin. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the spin
|
||
of the charged lepton comes from the neutrino, however, what happens
|
||
to the other two faces of spin of the weakon? We have explained what
|
||
happened to its neutral face. That is the face that the weakon uses
|
||
to travel around the circular pathway (much as the photon uses its
|
||
neutral face to travel along with the inherent motion). But the
|
||
weakon had two other faces, one that give it a positive moment in a
|
||
magnetic field and another that would give it a negative moment.
|
||
These are represented by the two ends of the cylindrical structure of
|
||
the spin one boson. The question is what happens to them.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Geometrically,
|
||
the simplest explanation is that each of the weakon’s two non-zero
|
||
faces coincides with one face of the neutrino in constituting the
|
||
charged lepton. The circular pathway gives the charged lepton two
|
||
opposite ways of being oriented in a magnetic field, because one of
|
||
the non-zero faces of the weakon coincides with one face of the
|
||
neutrino, and the other non-zero face coincides with the other one
|
||
face of the neutrino. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
we have assumed that following the neutrino pathway requires the
|
||
weakon to have fewer quantum cycles pre second, lowering its rest
|
||
mass. It is as if the rotation of the cylindrical weakon were slowed
|
||
down so that the weakon could follow the circular pathway provided by
|
||
the neutrino. But the decrease in quantum cycles per second does not
|
||
mean that its spin angular momentum is changed, because we are
|
||
assuming that spin angular momentum is quantized. That is, the
|
||
magnetic moment due to intrinsic spin is an all or nothing property:
|
||
either the particle has it or not. Thus, the particle would have that
|
||
same quantum property regardless of the frequency of the quantum rest
|
||
mass cycles constituting it. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
may seem redundant or even gratuitous to suppose that the two
|
||
non-zero faces of the weakon coincide with the two faces of the
|
||
lepton. But it would explain one or two otherwise puzzling facts
|
||
about leptons. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">First, we
|
||
know from Dirac’s equations that charged leptons, such as the
|
||
electron, cannot be turned over completely by rotating them 360<sup>0</sup>,
|
||
as one would expect, but requires two full turns. Since a 180<sup>0</sup>
|
||
rotation would make the face with the opposite orientation of spin in
|
||
front, one would expect that two 180<sup>0</sup> rotations would turn
|
||
it back to its original state. Though a 180<sup>0</sup> does give it
|
||
the opposite orientation of spin, the equations imply that the
|
||
electron has returned completely to its original size until it has
|
||
been turned over twice, that is, 720<sup>0</sup>. That otherwise
|
||
curious feature of the charged lepton would be explained
|
||
ontologically on this theory, because turning it over completely
|
||
would involve turning over not only the two opposite faces that the
|
||
charged lepton derives from the neutrino’s circular pathway, but
|
||
also the two opposite, non-zero faces that it derives from the weakon
|
||
that is using that circular pathway. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Second,
|
||
this ontological explanation of the charged lepton might explain
|
||
another puzzling property. The electron has a spin of ½, as if its
|
||
spin were only one-half of a quantum of action, and yet the magnetic
|
||
moment that it exhibits in a magnetic field is more like what it
|
||
would have, if it were a complete quantum of action, that is, about
|
||
twice the expected strength. That could be explained, perhaps, by the
|
||
way in which the spin of the charged lepton derives from the non-zero
|
||
faces of the weakon. With a spin of 1, the weakon has a stronger
|
||
moment in a magnetic field, when it has one at all, and that could be
|
||
the source of the magnetic force of the charged lepton. This would be
|
||
to interpret the “½” as just a device for cataloguing basic
|
||
objects by the number of faces they can show for interaction in a
|
||
magnetic field. (That is, according to quantum mechanics, the
|
||
strength of the magnetic moment is the square root of the product of
|
||
the spin and the spin-plus-one, or (s(s + 1))<sup>1/2</sup>,
|
||
and that means that the non-zero faces of the weakon have a magnetic
|
||
moment equal to the square root of two times Planck’s constant,
|
||
whereas the spin ½ particles has a magnetic moment equal to the
|
||
square root of three divided by two times Planck’s constant.)</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Decay
|
||
patterns.</i> As we have seen, this ontological explanation explains
|
||
the decay patterns of the negatively charged weakon into the tau
|
||
particle, muons and electron. It remains only to point out that it
|
||
also explains the decay patterns of the positively charged weakon,
|
||
and why decay stops there.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
positively charged weakon, W<sup>+</sup>, interacts in a magnetic
|
||
field with the neutrino-antineutrino pairs in space, but it latches
|
||
onto the circular pathway with a right-handed spin in the magnetic
|
||
field, or the antineutrino, and it releases the neutrino, with a
|
||
left-handed spin. Otherwise, the decay pattern is the same as
|
||
described above, because the tau neutrino is the smallest, followed
|
||
by the muon neutrino and, finally, the electron neutrino. The rest
|
||
masses of the resulting positively charged leptons is inversely
|
||
related to the sizes of their neutrino pathways. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
electron (or positron) is a stable particle, because it carries an
|
||
electric charge, which cannot come apart, and there are no larger
|
||
pathways in space than those provided by the electron neutrino (or
|
||
antineutrino). We must take the conservation of electric charge to be
|
||
a fact about how matter coincides with space, an aspect of the
|
||
electromagnetic field whose gauge bosons exert forces that keep its
|
||
pulsations in phase with other charged particles throughout the
|
||
universe, on this interpretation of gauge field theories. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Q<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAE8AAAAOCAMAAABZ7rF9AAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpGPjA4MSYqJR18AAB2AABmAAAcGBMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAjl63EAAAAq0lEQVR4nK2RjQrDIAyEz0ajRZP++P7vuriVjtHB2s5DIlH8OC+Yl67CNM09hal2FeaKjqpYGs/FNBwvmW7ynHLQ4+Pkb/KYgSHDp4YglRGQLNaQOFdErvAswpcR2XigtFrn7JitUvmSxA/ehz8uXhvdeJqt8qjnie/8hEAS1COmsG48zxkUfTk/l32+EmwLMZiV2Ozagh9sxI6vjGXjWWjPv/2tnddJjddVDyToG4ogdQEWAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCLCos_11" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="31" border="0">uarks.</b></i>
|
||
Quarks cannot be explained in the same way as charged leptons,
|
||
because weakons do not decay into quarks. Indeed, quarks are never
|
||
found in isolation from one another. Hence, baryons, at least, must
|
||
have existed from the beginning of the universe (or forever). But
|
||
quarks can still be given a genuine ontological explanation in terms
|
||
of the simpler particles of which they are composed, for their
|
||
constitution could explain their properties and decay patterns.
|
||
Though that would mean that quarks are not basic <i>particles</i>,
|
||
the special <i>configuration </i>of more basic particles constituting
|
||
them must have existed from the beginning, and that would be an
|
||
ontological explanation of them. That is what is proposed here. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">By
|
||
contrast, attempts by physicists to explain quarks by a more basic
|
||
structure focus on formulating a mathematical law from which both the
|
||
electroweak force and the strong (i.e., color) force can be derived.
|
||
This is the attempt to discover what is called the “grand unified
|
||
theory,” or GUT, and though it is successful in some ways, it
|
||
implies that there is a magnetic monopole and that the proton can
|
||
decay. Neither phenomenon has been observed, and on this ontological
|
||
theory, neither is possible. (Instead, the magnetic field is an
|
||
aspect of space connected with the inherent motion by which particles
|
||
are lined up according to their spin orientation to interact with one
|
||
another, the protons may have a geometrical structure in space that
|
||
literally cannot be undone.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Quantum
|
||
matter.</i> The main idea of this theory of quantum matter is that
|
||
bits of matter are constituted by cycles of quantum events in such a
|
||
way that the quantity of matter in any object is equal to the total
|
||
number of its quantum cycles per second. Such a nature is plain
|
||
enough in the photon, whose motion across space with the inherent
|
||
motion marks out its wavelength. And it has revealing implications in
|
||
the case of the quantum kinetic cycles, which constitute the kinetic
|
||
energy of particles with rest mass. But this nature is not so clear
|
||
in the case of the particles with rest mass themselves, because their
|
||
quantum cycles must somehow be contained by space in a way that does
|
||
not involve motion relative to the inherent motion in space.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Weakons are
|
||
a most elementary from of quantum matter, and so we have assumed that
|
||
the weakon manages this trick by simply rotating like a cylinder,
|
||
though, of course, with a fixed and unchanging number of quantum
|
||
cycles per second (about 10<sup>24</sup> cycles per second, given its
|
||
rest mass of 80,000 MeV/c<sup>2</sup> and a photon with an energy on
|
||
the order of a few electron volts having a frequency of about 10<sup>15</sup>).
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We have
|
||
seen how charged leptons could be constituted by quantum cycles in
|
||
which the weakon’s unit of action completes a circuit provided by a
|
||
neutrino’s circular pathway. Each circuit takes so much longer than
|
||
a simple rotation around it own axis that it reduces the total number
|
||
of quantum cycles required each second to constitute the continued
|
||
existence of the particle. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Quarks can
|
||
also be explained as being constituted by a pathway for quantum
|
||
cycles of the kind that derive from weakons. But the pathway must be
|
||
more complex than leptons. The simplest way to explain why quarks
|
||
cannot exist apart from one another is to hold that the pathway
|
||
followed by their constituent quantum cycles depends on a combination
|
||
of quarks. This is plausible, because physics has discovered that
|
||
three quarks are required to make up a baryon, the only stable
|
||
hadron, and each meson, the particle that mediates the strong force
|
||
between them, is made up of a quark and an antiquark. As it happens,
|
||
there is a way to explain these particles, their properties and decay
|
||
patterns along the lines of the foregoing ontological explanation of
|
||
charged leptons.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Twisted
|
||
circular pathways.</i> The key to the ontological explanation of
|
||
quarks is, once again, the interaction between weakons and neutrinos.
|
||
This is to interpret the weak force, not merely as the cause of decay
|
||
patterns, but as the force that is responsible for their
|
||
constitution. The weak force gives particles a nature by binding
|
||
weakons to neutrinos. I have been describing this bond as a weakon
|
||
moving along a pathway provided by a neutrino, and that is still the
|
||
best way to represent it geometrically in the case of quarks. But
|
||
even a single quark involves a more complex interaction between
|
||
weakons and neutrinos than is found in charged leptons.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">We must
|
||
assume that the weak force can interact with two neutrinos. Such
|
||
interactions are possible only when the neutrinos are of different
|
||
sizes and one is a neutrino, while the other is an antineutrino.
|
||
Moreover, it is an ordered interaction in which the two neutrinos
|
||
play different roles. One neutrino is dominant, and the other
|
||
neutrino is partially hidden. Such an interaction is what constitutes
|
||
a single quark. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
interaction in a quark can be pictured in terms of a pathway provided
|
||
for the weakon by the two neutrinos. What happens as the weakon moves
|
||
along that pathway is that the weakon starts off moving around a
|
||
circle in one plane, just as in a charged lepton, but the effect of
|
||
the other neutrino is that the weakon winds up moving circularly in
|
||
an orthogonal plane. That is, during each quantum event, the weakon
|
||
follows a circular motion that is also twisted so that the plane of
|
||
circular motion rotates 90<sup>0</sup>. That is not by itself a
|
||
closed pathway for the weakon, but there are two different ways that
|
||
the pathway can be closed — by the combination of quarks in mesons
|
||
and baryons.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">First, the
|
||
weakon coming out of the twisted circular pathway one quark can enter
|
||
the twisted pathway of an antiquark, and since the second quark
|
||
rotates the plane of circular motion back to the initial plane of the
|
||
first quark, the weakon can go around again and again. The second
|
||
quark is able to complete the closed pathway because it is the mirror
|
||
image of the first quark. That is the basic pattern of the meson. But
|
||
notice that two weakons are required to constitute a meson. The
|
||
complete pathway involves both a quark and an antiquark, and a
|
||
complete quantum event is required for the weakon to traverse the
|
||
pathway of each twisted circle. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Second, it
|
||
is also possible to put three of these twisting circles together as a
|
||
closed pathway. In the first quark, the weakon follows a circular
|
||
pathway which twists into a circular pathway in an orthogonal plane,
|
||
and the second quark picks up the circular motion in that plane and
|
||
twists it into a circular motion to the remaining plane which is
|
||
orthogonal to both in three dimensional space. That is still not a
|
||
closed pathway, but with a third quark that picks up the circular
|
||
motion in that third plane and rotates it back to initial plane of
|
||
circular motion in the first quark, the weakon can repeat the same
|
||
trip over and over again. Since each twisting circle comes out in a
|
||
direction perpendicular to its entrance, three of them together
|
||
brings the weakon back to its starting point. This is the plan
|
||
followed in baryons, composed of three quarks each. But three weakons
|
||
are required to constitute such a particle, because one must be
|
||
traversing each twisted circular pathways during each cycle. That is,
|
||
three parallel series of quantum cycles constitute each baryon.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Weak
|
||
interaction in each quark.</i> This weak interaction in a quark
|
||
between weakons and two neutrinos must, of course, be assumed as part
|
||
of the nature of the weak force. It is a single quantum event, but it
|
||
can be pictured in much the same way we did in the case of leptons.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Instead of
|
||
interacting with the neutrinos by its zero face, the weakon could
|
||
interact with both neutrinos at once, if it interacted by way of its
|
||
two non-zero faces, each with an opposite orientation of spin in a
|
||
magnetic field. That is, one non-zero face would try to follow the
|
||
circular pathway of the neutrino, while the other non-zero face would
|
||
try to follow the circular pathway provided by the antineutrino, and
|
||
the combination of these two influences would result in a twisted
|
||
circular pathway that rotates from one plane in three dimensional
|
||
space to another. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
pattern would explain why the quark is constituted by a neutrino and
|
||
an antineutrino, rather than two neutrinos (of different sizes).
|
||
Since the non-zero faces of the weakon have opposite orientations of
|
||
spin, the neutrinos with which they interact also have opposite
|
||
orientations of spin. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">A weakon
|
||
interacting with a neutrino and antineutrino in this way would be
|
||
contorted in a way that leaves its zero-face free, and that could
|
||
become the face by which each quark exerts color forces on other
|
||
quarks and passes its weakon on to the next quark. The eight
|
||
different gluons might then be explained geometrically as the forces
|
||
needed to line up three quarks properly (or to line a quark and
|
||
antiquark) so that the weakon can complete a full circuit through
|
||
them. Each quark must pick up a circular motion in one plane, twist
|
||
it to another plane, and pass the circular motion onto another quark,
|
||
and the gluons could be explained geometrically by their various
|
||
roles in giving the three quarks the constant spatial relationship
|
||
required for the weakons to make a complete their trips through the
|
||
quarks. In other words, the color force would be another aspect of
|
||
the weak force that is manifested when weakons interact with these
|
||
neutrino-antineutrino combinations.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Notice that
|
||
this account of the interaction between neutrinos and weakons
|
||
parallels the explanation of leptons, for in that case, the
|
||
interaction of the zero-face of the weakon with a neutrino exposed
|
||
the two non-zero faces of the weakon, explaining the two non-zero
|
||
faces of the charged lepton entailed by its ½ spin as a fermion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[There may
|
||
be other ways of picturing this interaction geometrically, though
|
||
their explanations do not seem to be as complete. If the weakon uses
|
||
its zero face, perhaps it begins in each quark by following the
|
||
pathway of one neutrino, but in the presence of an antineutrino of a
|
||
different size, it simply shifts to the second pathway, which twists
|
||
its circular pathway. However, the quark seems to be a point-like
|
||
object, and this theory does not explain its unity, since a
|
||
sequential pathway would seem to require two quantum events.
|
||
Furthermore, it does not explain why the interaction does not occur
|
||
with two neutrinos of different sizes. Why is an antineutrino
|
||
involved. (Notice that on the previous model, there is are reason for
|
||
having both a neutrino and an antineutrino. Nor does it have any
|
||
problem explaining why the neutrino and antineutrino are not of the
|
||
same size, since a neutrino and antineutrino of the same size would
|
||
annihilate one another.] </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Kinds
|
||
of quarks.</i> If quarks are constituted by neutrinos and weakons in
|
||
some such way, it is possible to explain all the kinds of quarks by
|
||
the kinds of neutrinos of which they are composed. There are just
|
||
enough differences between the composite particles to explain all the
|
||
properties that distinguish one kind of quark from another, including
|
||
their antiquarks. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Spin.</i>
|
||
As fermions, all the quarks have a spin of ½. We assume that the
|
||
interaction between weakons and a neutrino and antineutrino of
|
||
different sizes in each quark is a single quantum event. Together
|
||
these more basic particles must make up a single fermion. As long as
|
||
each weak interaction is a single quantum event, it is not impossible
|
||
for a particle constituted this way to have a spin of ½, because the
|
||
spins of the constituent neutrinos are not oriented in the same
|
||
plane, where their spins would cancel one another out. Instead, the
|
||
neutrinos are bound to one another in a way that we are assuming is
|
||
unequal. One of the neutrinos making up the quark is dominant, as if
|
||
the other neutrino were somehow hidden, and thus, the dominant
|
||
neutrino’s orientation of spin can be assumed to be what gives the
|
||
quark as a whole the two, opposite faces that fermions, with a spin
|
||
of ½, must have. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is one set of combinations of neutrinos with weakons that will
|
||
explain all the kinds of quarks and their properties. Those
|
||
combinations are indicated in the accompanying diagram (Constitution
|
||
of Quarks). In each case, the first neutrino (or antineutrino) in
|
||
each stack is the dominant one, tending to mask the other neutrino
|
||
(or antineutrino). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Sign of
|
||
electric charge.</i> The d, s and b quarks all have an electric
|
||
charge of –1/3, whereas the u, c and t quarks all have a charge of
|
||
+2/3. And antiparticles always have the opposite electric charge. The
|
||
sign of the charge of the quark depends on the dominant neutrino in
|
||
the same way that the sign of the charged lepton is determined. We
|
||
assumed that the spin of the neutrino is synchronized with the
|
||
universal pulsation of negatively charged particles and that the spin
|
||
of the antineutrino is synchronized with the positive pulsation. That
|
||
is how we explained why neutrinos acquire a negative charge, and
|
||
antineutrinos acquire a positive charge. Accordingly, the charge of
|
||
the quark is negative, when its dominant member is a neutrino, and
|
||
the quark’s charge is positive, when the dominant member is an
|
||
antineutrino (whatever ultimately explains the “dominance” of one
|
||
neutrino over another in a quark). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Size of
|
||
electric charge.</i> The electric charge of the quark is either 1/3
|
||
or 2/3, and that can be explained as a result of the combination of
|
||
the two neutrinos. We are assuming that the charge is a pulse of
|
||
electric force that is synchronized with the universal pulsation of
|
||
such charges, and thus, since negative and positive charges are 180<sup>0
|
||
</sup>out of phase with one another, the fractional charges can be
|
||
explained by an appropriate rotation or phase shift in the cycle of
|
||
such pulsations. It is presumably because a neutrino and antineutrino
|
||
have opposite phases relative to that universal pulsation that the
|
||
electric charge of the quark is in between –1 and +1, and so the
|
||
relative sizes of the dominant and hidden neutrino could determine
|
||
the size of the quark’s charge. That is, if the dominant neutrino
|
||
is bigger (requiring fewer quantum cycles per second if it were on
|
||
its own), then it is a charge of 1/3. But if the dominant neutrino is
|
||
smaller (requiring more quantum cycles per second on its own), the
|
||
charge is 2/3. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If the
|
||
conservation of electric charge is due to the electromagnetic field,
|
||
it is possible for the weakon traversing one of these twisted
|
||
pathways to be separated from the electric charge it has when its
|
||
exists independently, and it could even be what actually keeps the
|
||
weak force from acting in ways that would not conserve charge (though
|
||
there is probably a deeper explanation).</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAdQAAAFbCAMAAABbH49TAAABgFBMVEX////39/f//4Dv7++7///393zm5ubx8Xm19/fe3t6t7Ozm5nPn33jW1tbbz9vf33Cs3+ek39/MzMzbz3TFxcXPv8/MzGa9vb2ZzMzPv3DDr8Ocv8+QxcW1tbW/v2CMv7+tra3Dr2yUr8OMtbW3n7elpaWvr1iDsrK3n2inp1SNn7erj6uZmZl5paV1n5+bm06rj2SFj6uff5+MjIyUlEpmmZmff2CMjEqEhIRojo59f5+Tb5OEhEJ7e3tihISTb1x2b5Nzc3N5eT1ae3tzc0hxcUdWdXVubjpmZmZpaUJjY1ZQaWlmZjN7T3tkZD9ZYGB7T1RbW1tNYWFmT3tQWlpZWTpvP29WVy9SUlJRUUtvP1BJUVFBVFReP29RUTBKSkpPTyhLS0FmM2Y9TExJSTJCQkJjL0xCQjc4QkJCQikxQEA6Ojo6OiVXH1dXH0gzMzMnMTExMRwpKSlLD0tLD0QnJx0gICAeHhVAAEAYGBgPDw8ICgoAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADnk4bwAAAk+klEQVR4nO1dj4PbxJWWV8GJAm5YoUSkQYnbQ3B3Va+AesQQBBW5Fh+B+pxL07iXnq8B0cCmp8Q9DPHqj7/3ZvRjZMte25oZrTbzQXZtaTRv5n1vfmik2U/TFBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFM4y7MCon0nfrp9Hi6D70SJJkmhodna/OEzCrdK5i3j3zDMTSYkQWt752N6+uG6UJMG+9tsId5HMfdv2j5KZ3uls6ygjNMlviIYOge67m9KBV+3O9tkX0KPY9nqd4tr+Iok8250mybS7dYYGkNrZy34r4SbJGCjR9e6Daber69vV208SnXwIwFlwccdMkv6mdP3FEabTd/ZqhGzo5FJybT8r7wBZ3ba8EHwBVHEP+20EhHAELuoahhGEhgG0blXtIGug2Ea7cJWTtsTOhnR6dw+vYhNDC9ml82SelneWJK6xbY5JEuI13ReirY6SxAMX9QCWAz/ASf0gcPX0tO5qRpDPU0w/COjwhmTR5mO5xFlAqkMP6H1MbrhL6XpoBjjo6G4Q9DPzRh+mQb6ulcGWAJsYls+g4eZm33s9aKoRHu90bCwUtUvKXFxtYv40m7BnmrbrdEkStMBh9nVKMU8Sw4DqmmaPwLDni3CcLDxsW9FT6FRhUrKwSBscJ+MgSnB80+HE0ZFj2Efz5Ahd3B0nyezIN4zhEU5r8MIOk657BM2KpNO9xRwymZtw1ozmSQS0J7PS4GgyJcComB/FjmmmpMKsye2S8prQER9bVs8/WsAkKES7JI8AZ33zbpa/R0sCpJqWc3wcYvFNKEO4GJ/ZMRYcAD6yLMvsGYjeIgFvgitNbF1A1dSBL2Nsax5MdDudBbY7D1wYDh2z58ySI2w2fUj5YOiZpP3Y5EJ0WZ7OggOYzgAmjE7nKJmTgRg4D5wpdhbF4KizJbDh99FwiMWjpMKEq2/Q8vag7LZt9bDxdrowejukl1/oOJIHaf7z+VGCJU6SoenMY8vAyeA8Ac79QN96RG4ZwDGGaaNvDBy4usAJ9sDgAxzFwKVw+HkSY8cZJEc9Xfe76YkeXGb2jiipSJaLvu71sR/uQoMi42CeLkxJnSYzaMDwzcNscMbdtYB4oxgcgZFuJy8BaWK241gFqWCHlNdAUvEMoRAu6JOimYS1sEvzn8PIgFMFyM6eRzbGBjLsdXSTJD+TrEL327ccx8buDQFNC6Yl4K8Yh6uQdJpxEkPvbPjYrUUuHDcIWRY6NAamoTckpJJ8XGxKxhB7dYNkQNMRUiEdNDzIHxINMf8j0nljK8paIqENJ0JpCWgTI6R2UlIHlu0QdpLkud3v2yaZBLk4baKxYXlzzB5S0PwxmKC3mSc+jV0dKp0chWY+UJ81QLcYEs9g0HawY0QawU+xBRQgFab1NHlKmgYwBfCRADhhksuAcOi9CakeHHAsdG7PhKQ47Bl5OmQXWjIQiG6GgW6IHT44HY6Cw207ZzUqlQCbmOVADimpOBbYJAh1GyZKaNIkkyDI0iMzg+FiFs4S2mPT/G34CAM3DMHIaq/btZDVZI4lOJPTYfDMcZ/6jHyHAa5H/DzFcWuIDc2eJTN0I3jAHR8DwcAvkuWkpGa9bkGqacGk2sLDeTrSZOHAIpkZPQsHPYwTcjUUYUxpIkWYsCXAJja0oIBWWkD4fkyDEIddz0KT2OwxSx8viJKp3o2TEQwpJgRNjB2FjcE0xDmXS6oBfbQfY/qifzhbGGJVC1J9DHjbJU63LWxwlkNIdSwfRr7eg+TIoUNk3lKxKeBsxbPT7jewbJyLoluHbEuFodCMMEcb57B4Gq+2HUKqk9FWLkGPttT8LJZ3TEi1Fsm0h6egpUamDcd9zBKard6dpTkekfwxYDCbiLJqdGEg79kJ7Y3PJKn6Axiahq5pOMOxRuaesWWPk7mNcxDCSUqqPYx6BtAQooch6qOx59C2hr4EZmajAbgPvHo8nEH/Bpc4Zp6ORIFNOB/a0PYfkPyrSC2XgJIKOWXe7+D6oGfb/gJHc3IKOtYx3L0kPuZynCzC6DiJSOsmpEJ5KakOtM4Y7cCUCkaAOcaG0T2LpHa6eN8BWIzJCqt1lDyH2zsHXRofA1UhkJrMfAfuLhbx8+chdtamvcCbHccDNyWxh01hhs0AP+B8Cu4zkzmwn6Wz4gXJCW5uvOfJ/PkxDKJ2fjWEAfbvWVtkS/AAR8I4ZEntDmJS3qmnG6QZ9hzIPIJp+/Mp8AfRM+sfJ8dTt0/zxyAckGz6MIGCuZVpzJMZTPBcl3QAyysfZwGdrmHZvu+76fRXNxzf79sEMKvoEb/ZpA/rgRvgK5LaM1yPzGphwmnaZPLsQIdKPvSgN3cgFc5hinRdwgDeDbu+79D8TTb/3L+drs2UAJdG7GLE1TpAZXB8PLIMcgZHTphNuzYxiCzZrmHSb3ZaOgen9l1o1a7neX3Is2v2XQsb+VklVcPqEgcb5NYOvpq2nTkdHGex32AuTMcoesJKDxHPGpmLiSMReQaEVDKmsjlaZnp1yl9OqlGUwCC8sIOfDnMhRDSwzAG5DCz2UotOFgWUYHoxRgQEK8zYXNo6sYxYy7NLKoQ+zkstctvWxVtE8jVbZCLLTQTwrZt+JW4x6TGSnPop/YBRQj1sFunopWTZyizlb+Xfup1SgeixLIN8mtrxPLM/ePAciX1g0xvs3CKNGhpUtlmUjpCaJiF3Nd0erfTZHFOpE026+ku64G76lbbd7AvcM+Zfe9SRaRL8TQ4YJllD0AkNpCWi92i69FI2y15+NrOW0caWQKelY5YJsCUDh144Hjg2JUwnEQMWadT0SPNPAywtlN7NwpMtxBm9pdGQ1a6Bz0HIkzed0tpLGSYPuSho50w/5me6uP5UPpBdT5aemMPkNzlAzhsr+edtsdNlS6B32ZPkNB0FaGskqya6kZnsdru5+W5xMT4hzEvVpYVIzzTldsEgjzrTZ5bZE9LsS3YqnUbRR5vFc9T0kF4cKF1TSqezV+b5F5nn/i2nyPJlioutzs46eCabwlDpM2u1VJOzuqJP0MlfLujk3/LPVVh/Jn8irqeUVF5Znf9SedIjyydp15J2pr2U1CWL66xXFecMo1zH9fXd0hEnOOxkf25M0dGzPhY79E5+wRbl36EIClLRKXfxTRdHgQ/yDldxesbwAoyKCgoKCgoKCgoKCgoKCgoKCgoKCgoKCgoKCqcbHXt49P2zvwzO7gb5Fw+dybdvvXzw0pVP/9IX+ohZauyIMdaa8Df+evOlA4IrzwYC/wqNrNgRaExqFWph8quDDC9/6wrbTC0rdgQak1qFWvC+OChwPRa2RVNS7Ig0JrUKdaB//zJD6sEfw2JDGVfIih2BxqRWoRbCz1hOoV9xhbAqK3YEGpNahXr44XyJ1JeehG6+3ZcjJMWOSGNSq1AL7h8Pyrh55PUt/mUlsfM+gcjYYYxxD1RJ4c8Bn//TEqmXfhh4DveyyoodgcakVqEWOk9gnLi+gCL+kJX1+dDnX1ZJsZMbK/oEbsakVqEWel9j8Z7AVP1JVtZvJwOPd7dCYufg4Or/wY//FRg7rDEWHIzJCn8O6JPB/1fPDq5fz3uVOPD6Jl9SaewcHPzpH+GfuNgpG2PAwZik8OeBkN5OL67fzB3w1izwXc4B2E8njv/4zcHVq+JipzDG9gl8jEkKfx74nJbws2dFVF/5IRzwntaF2VLM/119R2DsMMaYPoGPMUnhzwNf0+Hn0iVk9skznLSfPw65TwA+z6L7k29Exg5jjOkT+BiTFP4c0P22KOKl/7n+EYnC42Hgc+5Vvs6mLq+8Aj9eg/+ExA5rrOgT+AQqG/5X4D9B4c8B5h+Kil9/8tFHJBqfjwIyq+Nnho0d7BpJxyggdlhjRZ/AJVBLVXiSTpZEVaEe7N8z0fzsrbfewg/fj0MyVPAzw8ZOTmq92HmPoLveGOkTPvnTN3QZqHaglqqQkco//HdHqvPDoP9bpqiXPrqJfcvBswcwVHAd/9nYAXxz/pvXRMTOirFX/uPq+7QT3tLY+lApVeHZ+WdXxIR/gXDLdNGKvJn76cEqnkzJ+M+R1FLsQPv52c9+JiJ2Voxd/dP779PZUm1jpSp8lvZpoqqAiLZJZE8m8xVSvY/WkOrtTSoK0CxLvJRj57V3OMXOrZ9UHWWMnf+GhA8PY2wVrmR3NfzDP0UYR5FmRlGIOoOBCc02HEXxyotRxtzQ41VSf70rqaaLPYM7msQrfTmFHa12CeXYOf8Kh9hB3L9cdZQ19sr77+xkrPumpr1Z1fuWcj1/iUv4r0c/wJYa6VrQN0MtDvWJFhnkaBl+WNX9+htIrZ7U2cRe0NfMUXWBKkndOXZOxuUvv/xbNak1jF2+vzZUBFRhLVCWK8IOGLwd9d2J7adfltMFVaTGX/z65keATz/99LMv/kjxPz9EJ5Nqr+30q0jdPXZORPdvXf1RpfvrGFtPqoAqrIffT0l1XW0y0sORWU1qH46udr+jhx9Q/CuD77ZoqbZmrGupsbbSz+8eOyfiF7fWub+OsfWkCqjCeujzYBRp7iSAHtiPNXuhVZOqjeLR6kTJ/+DcKh5uIhXtLbQgCqI1Y6oWxaNlUnePnRPx3nvr3F/H2OVH2pr2L6AKG6DbOrjXIDqEMD0yyf/6lm+Q+x/vSiq1F/TtXW7Odo+dE/FTaFNrut86xu4/uiUgV7nwbu9X1GA3Qe89YudE3Hp0q3qiJMKYqFyFwL2DZbtNUBR1wruo+8bOKTImtQr14NytKOrjB7yLSmNn2SPcY0ekMalVqAfrYUVRvxvzLqqk2BFpjOb6IYHwKtRD7zGW7cYCfszzoj4d8S6qpNhhjC1Vqb4xqVWoh058gRTuX+BfVtILsyHvokqKHdZYqUocjNFclyCqCjURHWLh/uXpuRs3spIefjfkvfglKXZYY6UqcTBGc732d/jxN+FVqInxP5DiLW4Ut2FvxEPuzx7kxE7JGFslHsZorn/+Z/gnvgr1MKA1v/O0cMAvKalcnxJKih3WGFslHsZorv/86Ny1a+KrUA8OHf8PMQxfh/8AvzsahrzffJQUO6wxtko8jKVV+Pu1dyVUoR66jy/kZfyODnhfTYfcX9JgY+fOd08vCoqdkjGmSjyMpbn+5lERl+KqUBP/9caSBy4+HQ+5v07FxM7hVzdufyAodlaMZaRyMJbm+uqryOyfH10QWoWaGBRrmk8vPoXO6u14JODFxyJ2bnx3+/YNQbGzYoxWiY+xItdX//Pah++KrUI9mA/zsL7z9ttvnzt392g4DDyHM6lF7Fx8SsyIiZ1lY7RKfIwVuV7784cfXhNbhXrojN9Oi/r6B9TnD0TcfDGxc3j7g0NRsbNk7PV0ss3FWFGFC49+/vOfi61CTTjZUslFciP28dFIxOhfxE7WXoXEzpIxWiVOxpgqvPrhu6+KrUJN6Pd+yTr7+AHtU3gPFE55mU1Q7Ag1JrUK9dDpJYd5QS/cjcdDIbt+JMWOSGNSq1ATuvcwZ/Xj2RhLKiD8JMWOSGNSq1ATne5gTkPw8OFTiD4sqdnlHn5yYkeoMalVqIeObrjR07u/u/3V/AgKiiUVMfhLih2RxqRWoSY63Z7tDafTB0NE4JOS8idVTuyINCa1CjXR0bum7fqDIAQgp4L+Eo6U2BFqTGoVagIiEFj1/AHAdx0Lok8EqXJiR6QxqVWoC8Kq47qe5/Ztsyco+uTEjlBjUqtQFxCCPdOyAVZP3N8mlhM7Qo1JrUJddHS9a/QAhsi/Ii4ndoQak1qF2kBau8Co4OYjI3aEGpNahfroEIg2IiN2xBqTWoWWQErsiDUmtQoKCgoKCgoKzUKSLJ1c9Tsh1loj4CdLlk6u+p0Qa+0R8JMkSydX/U6ItfYI+MmSpZOrfifEWmsE/GTJ0slVvxNirT0CfpJk6eSq3wmx1iIBP0mydHLV74RYa4+AnyxZOrnqd0KstUfAT5IsnVz1OyHW2iPgJ0uWjphhVfWEqt+htZKEHw9r7RHwEyN215QZkdbkVqEWiCxdWWtQhCydGE09qdYkeYoHqCxdSWtQhCwdNVNS1ROofkeslSX86luT5CkeoLJ0Ja1BEbJ0qfodq6onUP2OWitJ+NW3JslTPJDK0rFagyJk6VIzrKqeQPU7aq0k4VffmiRP8UAqS8dqDYqQpcsE/BhVPYHqd6k1VsKvvjVJnuKATJaOldoUIEuXq9+xqnrC1O8yayUJv7rWSp66fv2S2CrUAitLl0tt8pely80QVb2rV18RY2bJWknCr661kn7lF1/Qvvg0CPitgpWly6U2+cvSldTvrn7yyVUxZiqs5RJ+da2VqpDNlUQK+O0PVpYul9rkL0tXFvC7yklTbxtruYRfXWulKlyn0S9UwG9/lJT1MqnNk2Xp3HWaNNuYObhK3VxT/W69KiZrLZfw287aZZLpmydW4SZd2xcm4IfYuwPYU5VxRwWTZTPvnN/OzJ4oWcsk/OpaE6BfeQK2cXIQTVbb1x6ydGEcucEkivuaG0WR5roT1w0nsTuBIxTmJFoSsJKqfifGmtQqGOBfcx5HWhhEWoS+nkzA1+j7UNMn0SRtxP5EM/orV+8uS4d6j3rgajrq99kTG4UBg77WD+kRjYh6an5dM1vgvftfVuqn1rO2LlepAn7gUHAytNQ5vopq9CMt1rXQpgqcoan1U/+6cdVAuLssHekUqChjEAeRjR/hH9X1o9UPOZg5Gb/4Uuv+tPJMHWu3bq3JVaqAnxFFoZ4qXxrxKCAKjYGdKnAC3DShHc4rVP12lqXzMT+ae5wZKpMa8DBzMt589GZ1Q61l7e/rZidyBfzQiymp2GpTUqkC56R4kdykaptL2EOVMQpDPw2ZMIwrSLXnxFo9M1vg8q2/vVd5oo61H9edkCrg54+Cid2fhERgM0bZTUKqHsNkRjPhQNr99uOoQnB6H1k62ySzbcjMNgwdP8K/VBCSIIijSX0zJ+EnVJmxyiU1rN1/k+TMN9PdYaLopWkTlxr4y6RetlG1Vrc331FKkqUTYeanj+4/qu5/61j7yf379yvH1FMh4FfZMFcgSZZOrvqdEGstEvCTJEsnVcBPjLUWCfhJkqWTq34nxFqLBPwkydIRM8tCicLU74TIBbZIwE+SLB01UxZKFKd+J0QusE0CfpJk6YiZslCiQPU7IXKBLRLwkyRLR82UhBIFqt8JkQtskYCfJFk6aqYklChQ/U6IXGCLBPwkydJRM6x+n0j1O1Yu8MaNQz7WWiTgx8rSXbuGP4XI0hWaepl+n0j1O0bB78bduzf4WGuTgF8hS3ftN7/B0UKMLF1uJtXvE6t+x0hN0rkSD2stEvBjVBnpDECMLF1uJtXvE6t+x1TqBgkhHtZaJODHKOtdw5IKkqUrzFD9PrHqd0ylzn1wkZO1Fgn4scp6714QpqwnVcBPjLU2CfhJkqWTq34nxFqLBPwkydLJVb8TYq1FAn6SZOnkqt8JsdYmAT9JsnRy1e+EWGuTgJ8cWTq56ndCrLVIwE+WKqNU9Tsh1lol4CdHlk6u+p0Qay0S8JOlyihV/U6ItTYJ+EmSpZOrfifEWpsE/CTJ0slVvxNirU0CfpJk6eSq3wmx1iYBP0mydHLV74RYa5WAnyRZOrnqd0KstUrAT5IsnVz1OyHWlICfgoKCgoKCgoKCgoKCWLRHFVRhW8hSBVWiuPIgSxVUieJKhCRVUCWKKxGyVEGVKK48yFIFVaK4EiFJFVSJ4sqEJFVQJYorEbJUQZUorkRIUgVVorgSQVVBSwqSQlRBaewwQrXCRXG5S/C2RxQ3lRplFSRFqIIqUVyZoKqgJQVJEaqgShRXJlJhU1ZBUoQqaBo7rFCtaFFc3hK8LRLFTVVBWQVJEaqgWewwQrXCRXE5S/C2SBQ3EzYlCpJX4D8xqqBZ7DBCtcJFcTlL8LZHFDcXNiV4QnsWAaqgWewwQrXiRXH5SvC2RxSXVQXNSeWvClrEDiNUK1wUl6sEb4tEcUuqoAfPzj/D/pe/KmgRO4wqbs3YWa/KWJbgfQ3+29raFpkenHpR3LKw6WdUQJW/Kmg5dlJVXCmiuDhVIpOlVonimm7+kRX8WcWqfJS2pAp6JZ0CbFYF1fd4k6McO+n0RYoobk5qq0Rx7aD0sZI6gqTqYEkV9PylgtT1f0TcXpVyO9FQWVE2VcWtqyhbLR+1Yu2b89+8xsGaVFFcO5rErmZGUaiN5pG7gN8uqvYtaZqCr104tYw9VEHBiknMmSO0vFqgJFg5uqwoS1Rx64qPrpVlK1v7hEodb2lty0y38tT+sEOipadrQT9tqahjGullTVNAYmsTf/nqPVRBiRVirpR9DiNZlSIToij745v3b1WeKFl77Z1drF3+sVK7WlQV1oEyiep9QUoq/iISmOXuOMFWvXz1HqqguZV1vX1F9ytEUfbHy9qXv6g6UbJ2/pVdrHV/vLxGv1OqKG5OquumXkbhvpGxHal7qIKmuebmVlBBqhBFWegpL1eOq3Wsre1+pYri2vNgAiPoJIh0IwrMMPS1URiOtCpSg9Xud3dVULRCzFHLq0hWZ/hCFGXXklrH2lpSpYri6oZNdKtt8kNHdVPNNFc0TcHXURytuHsfVVC0guagA668uwnilQmZEEVZ8P971d1vHVHcdfecUkVx66GOKuiJ9zYFhCjK/nj/0f1KCupYe+9R9eRLsihuLUhSBZWrKCvE2qkQxd0OqdRoWRaUvyqoEsWVCUmqoEoUVyYkqYKS2FnWTxUtilu29wKJ4qZSoyVZUAGqoDR2yvqpokVxl+y9QKK4qSpoSRZUgCoojZ2yfqpwUdySvRdKFDeVGmVlQUWogtLYKemnChfFLdl7oURxU1VQVhZUhCoojZ2Sfqp4UVzW3gslipuqgrKyoCJUQWnsEEHT1+E/UbFTslYSUH2hRHEzqVFGQFWEKqhTzB2/Sycv4kVxCVIB1RdKFJeVGqUCqkJUQRmZ2oxUOaK4mYAqX1Hcw3OHgqtQD4zUKB0txKiCFrHz9OJT7H9lieJSAVW+orgwVfqz6CrUAis1SgRUxaiCFrFzR64oLhVQ5SuKm5J6ekVxS1Kj714QpQqax87r6SRGmiguN2tMpo8uPDo8zaK4klRB89i5SO8h2y2K+xtUOj7NoriSVEHPkiju4bsSqlALklRBz5Io7oVXJVShHuSogipRXKmQpAqqRHFlQpZ+qhLFlQk5qqBKFFcqZOmnKlFcmZCjCqpEceVCjiqoEsWVCzmqoEoUVy7kqIIqUVzJkKIKqkRxZUOKKqgSxT2TUKK4CgoKCgoKCgoKgpCcepyVeqyBEFJFZMoT25JqthOK1E3JmmZnTyhSNyVrmp09oUjdlKxpdvaEInVTsqbZ2ROK1E3JmmZnTyhSNyVrmp09oUjdlKxpdvaEInVTsqbZ2ROK1E3JmmZnTyhSNyXbxoNj5rPl8OKlVq4Nktqxh0ffP/uLX6WyIxg8SY2Zz95wR/eLybU5UjuTb996+eClK5/+xRZRho3gROo4jl1wvxXFkWUOZvF4+jx2x37sDuJ4YA6m8czfkQ4+uTZGqvHXmy/RP/R/5ZknohCbwIdUPwTPg/vHLny0oG1Z2KZiz8TPsTUckA+7gkOujZE6+VUu3/Dy15aIUmwAH1KHszgeg/tjwID0kcT99NfQG3rlXnRLcMi1KVK9LxhRjuvrJajEgA+p4QB/xmaEExl3Wrjfgc9TZztSya4ndtDkkGtDpOrflwTU/9AXUYz12J1U7xh+PC/7zorH4yl42J0Np6E5nQ6nTjx00eNTPLFnS+WQa0Okhp+V9HOu/FVEMdZjj5YKc5RVZ3rgYRdHPfhhuvDF8Sz8aLrw07HIyd1RO9eGSP3hfInUlySPqnuQOpgRZ3NHVRdQF82Q6v5xSerq5oqqjFDsM6Yee+FJzsRWhNipfVZ2ARS46pDluXR4o5lmSP38n5ZIvTTLTtl2xW1rhUDrGs3WTGh1vaTrVgVMk7GeGs9O5GeYNuXBiSkZbOgCcIbkrS4nZYsRa800QmrnyctLpB78kOlCzYNgVUuzQghszYQ5EyOqkg7bvoBZMtZTDnp3HM+KluNO49mQLhK4A1zZez6D28sh/DPHcMoxyWrBiVjuAmJcXSAZ4KrDwGXM4OrhwM0WI8bpSoSL90CNk9r7ekVq8L/76Tkka2JqYRTBjyCK/ElsaKHmjqK4D0fjgH40F1SYdTKJIk2fRBMdEmmuiUKrYR/+pVcQ0dWdC5glW/a/E3nDggEP7jFmdJGA3nVgS33u4KfYMf0hXS04kdTxbNmKn2ZA70wZM9hPwwG6GIEGyUoE2BiWFpkaIbX/2Qqp+aCKpNpBP0CZ1AiY6mvwOdICl+im6vY8/Zi21BiS2KGp9X08EthEP9DW8iuI6OrOBcySLfvfi4fDoqukTOaLBHF+uxHTtQLKyYmkLnUBzmw6LGXAmGFINQuD8fLycCOkhr9aIfWtSXqOkhrYqZYn1XmMtPTAJJhr+bk0eWBHEcosF6SS43myCnm4fUm1Zr5ftAnqXLJIUEkqXS04kVTCZNEFYKOrIJWYWUvqoNTNN0Lq59dXSL0Sp+dI92u4bhWpVGB5ldSJkX+sINVdHV/3XlFyhmHBEnUuWSSwng+nx6YfjVlS6WrBVmC6AA/yy6IiHroZh3QtIh5PZ162GJGROoiG5V6+EVK/XpknHZxfpOfoREmPUCZ1mVR9HoSLlC3UbNVSJs04GEH3G45iG4VWWVKJ6OrOBcySbWYCby2yRQKLrA+4HrnPcMlhh64WbAW2C3C8PAPHsxyLNQOTYbjHSRcj3Gwlwlnq45sgtfvXFU4PDjJSs1sam+qwUkVWE3/DT93Ws48aFSFPk5AvtmGgyKpukuNpMqPqwd7pe/Oh1AXURROkmn+oIPUHmX9t7/SRyhVNkGr/voLUZ5UCxoKgSOXus/5vK0h9snkNiC8Uqdx95n5aQerXMl9qUaRy95n3kSJVKBoh9deKVKFoglRfkSoWTZAafvHrmx8BPkX8228R//77ZzIfkytSufvM9n0P4SL6DsK2ZN7RcCLVHUezcDobmgMXH7yRJ2D0OVkdcMhVbbvYlGyz77yxac3wsVi6ro5PwOhzsjrgkKsidVOyE9xPn5aUnoBlT1D2B4dcFambku3q/sFABKk756pI3ZRsS/d7s2GUPgHbndTlt7k55KpI3ZSMcXXVy9z0mZibPi0jT8DSYzXAIVdF6qZkjKM2vMl56qBI3ZSMcdQ2L3Pv9d7vhre52/Xeb9MQ9DL3Xu/9bugD2vTebxg/fvwV4r8A9whGo9Fpf546ni37jtN7v8t9QDvf+x3867kLFxGHiNcJ3nh42pcJyZucLtvncXrvd6UPaOV7v/4H51Zx57STSlsR21Fyeu93qQ9o6Xu//sdnidT67/2W+4CWvvfr3W4tqTNrVvS/HN/7ZcKlpe/9uncqSL3bineUxuwb+hzf+2X7gHa+9+vcrSD1YY+eLF7a1TSyv8bcvIFNy7ctGtu/ZLovqe6JdzV7o9QH1EQTpFoPK0j9Kv0bWfT1ejvbSFG5FWYJ6Q4Me/ubor330vB74XoZpT6gJpogtfe4gtTHqYoZJdU1NTeOFpoe4eZFsh+Rbk0E0A8u7omCZFqIuxpNfxTCF7KxkW6DrFPAPBkvL58Mrn1AE6R2ji6scHrhu/TkArewaYGNGxcjLSRbaXDzqZluZtToHkV9Ut7ZBkngC9nYSLdB1ilgnoyjo08A1z6gkWXCrw5XSD28l57LdjfR7Wt0JyISbVICNS3dADen3DPbFeEL2S6VJ9y/gFkyjo6WiUZIHf3DCqlvjNJzGakm2bYIDRD4Itscy6Sao+LYEql0G2StAmbJmmZnTzRCasWS0i+z6VC+DzEKw4Vmx0EUwPgZTOwyqdpoFMR4ekJ2NbKk0m2QtQqYJWuanT3RCKn2vRVSb2d/dLK4pbENshMR/96KATPbdGuiln0wbZ1sVCS7GkkiPd3YePI8WJG6O07KtPt4ZaZ0T+bagyJVhM8evLHE6cWvZG5P5biT/FSiGVJXlvTfPv1/8WwV/P4ONwsOodIMqb17S/3vnRPXArmCD6nkGXYcxyZ9RM4JHEKloddZRm+Xe9/HUntfri3Vi7z6L/sy4BAqDZFql1cKPx6IKMZ68CN1OBvGfEnlECpNvXg2+iXbUBeSFS/4kTpjn1pzAYdQaYrUblIsFV64I7mhciKVPKwej2cefUS+H1b+3DqHUGnsFdH+vZzVj++dnJwvON2nOp5Fn1pb6Z/O5gEOodLce7/unPbAh3eH0uWG+Gy7EIT6odLgy9y9UXznd7fvPfU6IsqwEYK2Xezzhv7Z+XPrKbp935MtSUMgaNvFXm/on5k/t940+Gy74POG/ln5c+uNg8+2C05v6J+RP7feOPbeduGxDYfTG/or0dLKbRfNY99bGm86ZUji9Ib+UrS0dNtF89j7PrU0+vH8y9xFtLR020Xz2J9Utjvl+YZ+ES0t3XbRPPZfUQq32Jq4D5hoaee2i+ZxCl9n4RktitRNyfj5WSoUqZuSNc3OnlCkbkrWNDt7QpG6KVnT7OwJReqmZE2zsycUqZuSNc3OnlCkbkrWNDt7Qgyppx5npR5rIIJUBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFBQUFBYXG8f+KIMl9S+Om/QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" name="QuarkConstitution" align="bottom" width="468" height="347" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Rest
|
||
mass.</i> The rest masses of quarks are not well defined, because the
|
||
quantities are not entailed by theory and the quarks cannot be
|
||
measured apart from the baryons or weakons. It appears, however, that
|
||
a good part of the rest mass of the baryon and meson comes from the
|
||
gluons by which weakons pass from one quark to another, and since
|
||
that matter presumably exist as potential and kinetic energy, the
|
||
quarks are probably somehow in motion as the weakons are passing
|
||
through them. Experiments do, however, suggest a range of rest masses
|
||
for the quarks themselves, and the differences among them can be
|
||
explained according to the theory of quantum matter.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The second
|
||
family of quarks is more massive than the first, and the third family
|
||
is more massive than the second. Moreover, in the second and third
|
||
families, the quarks with 2/3 charge are considerably more massive
|
||
than the quarks with 1/3 charge. These differences can be explained
|
||
on the assumption that the rest mass depends on the total number of
|
||
quantum cycles per second, because neutrinos with smaller circular
|
||
pathways require more quantum cycles per second. Thus, the greater
|
||
mass of later families can be explained by their use of smaller
|
||
neutrinos: the tau neutrino replaces the muon neutrino in the second
|
||
family and the muon neutrino replaces the electron neutrino in the
|
||
third family. And the greater mass of the quark with 2/3 charge in
|
||
the second and third families can be explained by the smaller size of
|
||
the dominant neutrino. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Decay
|
||
patterns of hadrons.</i> The decay patterns of both baryons and meson
|
||
can be explained by this theory of quarks. In a weak decay, one kind
|
||
of quark turns into another kind, and this can happen in two ways.
|
||
Either the dominant and hidden neutrinos switch roles, or they switch
|
||
roles and one of the neutrinos is replaced by a larger neutrino
|
||
(requiring fewer quantum cycles). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">One pattern
|
||
is the decay that occurs within each family of quarks. When a neutron
|
||
decays into a proton, for example, the triplet of <i>ddu </i>quarks
|
||
becomes a triplet of <i>duu </i>quarks, giving off an electron and an
|
||
electron antineutrino (which is thought to be mediated by the decay
|
||
of the negative virtual weakon released in the process). On this
|
||
theory of quarks, what happens is that a <i>d </i>quark becomes a <i>u
|
||
</i>quark, and that means that their neutrinos change positions. The
|
||
muon antineutrino, which was the hidden member in the d quark,
|
||
becomes the dominant member of the u quark, and the electron neutrino
|
||
of the d quark becomes the masked member of the u quark. T</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The same
|
||
pattern occurs in the decay of mesons, which mediate the strong force
|
||
among hadrons. For example, the negative pion is made up of a <i>d
|
||
</i>quark and a <i>u </i>antiquark, and it typically decays into a
|
||
negative muon and a muon antineutrino (by way of a negative virtual
|
||
weakon). One of the ways this could happen is that the u antiquark
|
||
becomes a d antiquark. That means that the electron antineutrino and
|
||
the muon neutrino switch roles, and since that leaves the electron
|
||
neutrino facing the electron antineutrino and the muon neutrino
|
||
facing the muon antineutrino, they annihilate one another, and the
|
||
weakon extracts a muon neutrino from space to become a lepton leaving
|
||
a muon antineutrino as debris.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The weakon
|
||
is just a virtual particle in these interactions. It is the gauge
|
||
boson that arises from the weak field, that is, from space, according
|
||
to the gauge field theory, to preserve the weak charges of the
|
||
particles. For that role, the weakon does not need to have the energy
|
||
of an independently existing weakon (any more than the virtual photon
|
||
that mediates the electric and magnetic forces among electrically
|
||
charged particles needs to have the energy of an independently
|
||
existing photon). On this explanation, however, it is the weak
|
||
charges of the neutrinos that are be preserved, and their weak
|
||
charges are preserved by forces that line the neutrinos up as parts
|
||
of the quark. Thus, the weak force can change the dominance roles of
|
||
neutrinos in a quark (as long as electric charge is conserved). And
|
||
any matter left over can act like a charged weakon on space to
|
||
extract a neutrino and become a charged lepton (leaving the
|
||
antineutrino as debris). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The other
|
||
pattern is the decay that occurs between families of quarks. The
|
||
sigma minus is a baryon composed of the quark triplet, <i>dds</i>,
|
||
and it typically decays into a neutron, with <i>ddu, </i>and a
|
||
negative pion, which carries away the negative charge (and decays as
|
||
described above). The decay of sigma minus requires an s quark to
|
||
become a u quark. That involves not only a reversal of the roles of
|
||
the two neutrinos in the s quark, so that the electron neutrino
|
||
shifts from the dominant position in the s quark to the hidden
|
||
position in the u quark, but also a replacement of the tau
|
||
antineutrino in the s quark by a muon antineutrino as it takes up the
|
||
dominant position in the u quark. Thus, this theory would imply that
|
||
the decay of the sigma minus leaves two neutrinos in addition to the
|
||
negative pion which is recognized, namely, the tau antineutrino that
|
||
is released from the decay of the <i>s </i>quark and the muon
|
||
neutrino that was also extracted from space in order to supply a muon
|
||
antineutrino for the dominant position. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This other
|
||
pattern also occurs in mesons. The positive kaon, for example, is a
|
||
meson composed of a u quark and as s antiquark, and it typically
|
||
decays into a positive muon and muon neutrino. Assuming that the
|
||
neutrinos and antineutrinos must be lined up to annihilate one
|
||
another, this requires the s antiquark to decay into a u antiquark,
|
||
for then it can annihilate the u quark. That requires that the
|
||
neutrinos in the s antiquark to switch roles and at the same time
|
||
replace the tau neutrino with a muon neutrino (that is, the electron
|
||
antineutrino gives up its dominant position in the s antiquark and
|
||
takes up the hidden position in the u antiquark, and the tau neutrino
|
||
from the hidden role in the s antiquark is replaced by the muon
|
||
neutrino in taking up the dominant position in the u quark), Again
|
||
there are two neutrinos as extra debris, because the s quark must not
|
||
only release its tau antineutrino, but also extract a muon
|
||
antineutrino in its place, releasing a muon neutrino. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">All of the
|
||
decays of quarks between families of quarks involve such additional
|
||
neutrino debris, which are not recognized by high energy physics. But
|
||
that is not an empirical reason for doubting that this theory is
|
||
true, because neutrinos interact so weakly that they are almost
|
||
impossible to detect. They cannot be monitored in particle
|
||
accelerators. And this theory about the nature of quarks is not held
|
||
by physicists. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Other
|
||
families of leptons and quarks.</i> It is possible, given this
|
||
ontological explanation, that there are additional families of
|
||
charged leptons and quarks. It would require a smaller neutrino and
|
||
antineutrino. Call it “x”.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Charged
|
||
leptons could be constituted by them and charged weakons in the same
|
||
way as the electron, muon and tau particle (and their antiparticle).
|
||
Their smaller size would require more quantum cycles per second, and
|
||
that may be the reason they have not been observed, if they exist at
|
||
all. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Given the
|
||
role of neutrinos in constituting quarks, such a smaller neutrino
|
||
would mean that there could be three more families of quarks.
|
||
Consider the families of quarks with negative 1/3 charge, the d, s,
|
||
and b quarks. Following their pattern, there could be such a quark
|
||
composed of an electron neutrino and the x antineutrino, a muon and x
|
||
antineutrino, and one with a tau particle and an x antineutrino.
|
||
Similarly for the other members of each current family, there would
|
||
be three new kinds of quarks, which could constitute baryons and
|
||
mesons in the same way as currently recognized quarks.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The rules
|
||
for constituting charged leptons and quarks make it possible to
|
||
describe yet further families, if there are yet smaller neutrinos. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Permanence
|
||
of the proton.</i> Contrary to theories currently circulating about
|
||
the deeper structure of the basic particles of physics, this
|
||
ontological explanation of their constitution by weakons and
|
||
neutrinos implies that the proton never decays. That is the other
|
||
side of the assumption that baryons must have been part of the
|
||
universe from the beginning. Though their constitution can be
|
||
explained, they cannot be taken apart.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
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" name="Knot" align="bottom" width="393" height="229" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
structure of the baryon has been explained by holding that quarks
|
||
have a structure that rotates a circular pathway in one plane of
|
||
three dimensional space to another plane. Thus, three quarks rotate
|
||
circular pathways through all three independent planes of three
|
||
dimensional space in order to provide a complete pathway for weakons.
|
||
This suggest that the pathway of weakons in the proton is a knot in
|
||
three dimensional space that cannot be untied. (This model was
|
||
suggested by P. W. </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Atkins"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Atkins</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
1981., p. 86.) There are two such knots, and since they are mirror
|
||
images of one another, they would correspond to the difference
|
||
between baryons and antibaryons.</span></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">If,
|
||
therefore, quarks can be explained by neutrinos and weakons in some
|
||
such way, then given what has been said about the charged leptons,
|
||
all the ordinary objects in space are explained ontologically.
|
||
Physics recognizes 38 different basic particles, and we have seen how
|
||
spatiomaterialism might make it possible to postulate only 10. It can
|
||
explain the structure of ordinary material objects by starting with
|
||
nothing but the photon, three kinds of weakons, and six kinds of
|
||
neutrinos (three neutrinos and three antineutrinos). And as we have
|
||
seen, the photon may be simply another form of the charged weakon,
|
||
while the neutrinos may be just aspects of space that have to do with
|
||
how space interacts with weakons. It may be possible to explain
|
||
everything in the world by postulating nothing but space and three
|
||
kinds of weakons. All the rest could be just how they work together
|
||
to constitute the natural world. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Whatever
|
||
the total number of basic particles that must be postulated, this
|
||
ontological explanation of the basic objects of physics avoids having
|
||
to believe that everywhere in the vacuum there are particles of every
|
||
kind and their antiparticles. It is true that an energetic enough
|
||
photon to create any particle and its antiparticle “out of the
|
||
vacuum,” as they say. But it is not necessary to believe that all
|
||
the various kinds of particles recognized by physics are contained
|
||
everywhere in the vacuum, because if the vacuum is substantival space
|
||
and it provides the neutrino and antineutrino pairs, all the
|
||
different kinds of particles can be created together with their
|
||
antiparticles from them and weakons, wherever there is enough energy.
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
be sure, this ontological theory is speculative, and much more would
|
||
have to be said to defend this theory of basic objects in detail. But
|
||
the project of ontological philosophy would not be sunk, if this
|
||
explanation of the basic particles of physics is not correct, because
|
||
it is not necessary to give such an ontological in order to believe
|
||
that the world is constituted by space and matter as substances
|
||
enduring through time. I have included it, because it shows the power
|
||
of spatiomaterialism to reorient our ways of thinking about physics
|
||
and to open up new, more promising avenues of thought.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
covers all the basic issue of physics concerning the extreme of the
|
||
very small and the brief, leaving only the extreme of the very large
|
||
and long-lasting. In the same speculative spirit, let me suggest what
|
||
this ontological explanation of the truth of the laws of contemporary
|
||
implies about the beginning of the beginning, large scale structure,
|
||
and end of the universe. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><b>C<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_12" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="42" border="0">osmogony.</b></span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">Contemporary
|
||
cosmology may seem to pose a more serious challenge to
|
||
spatiomaterialism than current theories about the basic particles.
|
||
The prevailing belief is that the universe began with a big bang and
|
||
has been expanding ever since, and if that is true, spatiomaterialism
|
||
false. Indeed, if that is true, it is not possible to explain the
|
||
natural world ontologically. There can be no such explanation in a
|
||
world that begins with the big bang. (For a recent account of modern
|
||
cosmological theories, see </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Hawley</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
1998.) </span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">B<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_13" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="44" border="0">ig
|
||
bang cosmogony.</font> According to the big bang theory, space and
|
||
matter came into existence at some finite time in the past. (One
|
||
group holds that it was about 20 billion years ago, and another group
|
||
holds that it was closer to 10 billion years ago). Before that, there
|
||
was nothing. No space. No matter. Not even time. At that first moment
|
||
in time, matter is supposed to exist in a highly energetic state,
|
||
something like a radiation field with very high energy photons
|
||
(called gamma rays), and the pressure of this radiation is supposed
|
||
to cause the expansion. The big bang might be likened to an
|
||
explosion, except there was, of course, no space for it to expand
|
||
into. Rather space came into existence with the expansion. That is
|
||
when time began. Indeed, the theory assume that what exists besides
|
||
energy is spacetime, not space, and thus, that spacetime was at the
|
||
beginning tightly curved. The intense radiation field would include
|
||
all the forces of nature, including the Higgs field, and the energy
|
||
of those fields, being equivalent to mass, is supposed to have given
|
||
rise to all the kind of basic particles. The big bang and the
|
||
subsequent expansion of space is just the increase from zero in the
|
||
separation of basic objects in spacetime, and since it is the
|
||
expansion of spacetime itself, and not an event in spacetime, the
|
||
expansion can be faster than the speed of light in space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">As
|
||
spacetime itself expanded, the temperature fell. At some point
|
||
(between 10 and 100 billion degrees Kelvin), the temperature fell far
|
||
enough for nucleons that had been used into the simplest nuclei to be
|
||
stable. They were the nuclei of helium (with two protons and two
|
||
neutrons each), deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen, with both a proton
|
||
and a neutron), and a few other simple nuclei (such as helium-3 and
|
||
lithium). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">As
|
||
space expanded further, there was a time about 100,000 years after
|
||
the big bang when electrons coupled with protons and other nuclei to
|
||
form atoms. As a result, photons could travel long distances through
|
||
space without interacting with charged particles. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Subsequent
|
||
expansion of space led somehow to the formation of galaxies of stars.
|
||
Indeed, what formed were not only galaxies, but also clusters of
|
||
galaxies and superclusters of galaxies. It is not at clear how this
|
||
would happen, or even how stars would form, because when matter is
|
||
distributed evenly throughout space, there are no net gravitational
|
||
forces. Presumably, there was an uneven distribution of matter in
|
||
space, but its origin is still obscure. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
expansion of the universe continues to this day, though it is assumed
|
||
that the expansion is being slowed down by the gravitational
|
||
attraction among bits of matter throughout the universe. One of the
|
||
unresolved issues is whether there is enough matter in the universe
|
||
to bring its expansion to a halt at the end of time, as most
|
||
cosmologists would like to believe. A greater quantity of matter
|
||
would stop the expansion in a finite period of time, causing a
|
||
contraction which would draw all the matter in the universe (and
|
||
presumably spacetime) itself back towards a gigantic collapse. But it
|
||
now appears that the amount of matter (per unit volume) detected in
|
||
the universe is only about 5 to 10% of what would be needed to stop
|
||
the expansion, which would force cosmologists to believe that the
|
||
universe will expand forever. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There is a
|
||
variant of the big bang theory, the so-called “inflationary”
|
||
view, due to Alan Guth, which holds that there was a period of very
|
||
rapid, accelerating expansion very early on (10<sup>-33</sup> seconds
|
||
after the big bang). In one billionth the time it takes light to
|
||
cross the diameter of an atomic nucleus, there was a huge expansion,
|
||
increasing distances in space on the order of 10<sup>50</sup> times.
|
||
This would transform submicroscopic distances into cosmic distances,
|
||
and the reason for this late addition to the big bang theory is that
|
||
it would explain why the temperature of the universe is the same no
|
||
matter how far we look in any direction from earth. Without this
|
||
early inflation, the big bang would have results in a very lumpy
|
||
universe. But it implies that the universe is much larger than the
|
||
visible universe, though still finite.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>I<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_14" align="right" hspace="5" width="250" height="27" border="0">ncompatibility
|
||
of spatiomaterialism with big bang cosmogony.</b></i> The big bang
|
||
theory is incompatible with spatiomaterialism for two reasons, one
|
||
because it contradicts its assumption about the infinity of time and
|
||
the other because it contradicts its assumption about the nature of
|
||
space. . </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Time.</i>
|
||
Part of what makes spatiomaterialism the best ontological explanation
|
||
of the world is its assumption that existence itself is in time. That
|
||
assumption about the nature of existence and time entails a certain
|
||
interpretation of ontological explanation, for an ontological
|
||
explanation of the world explains everything in the world and
|
||
everything about the world by showing how it is constituted by
|
||
substances, and to hold that existence is in time is to hold that the
|
||
substances used as ontological causes endure through time. If
|
||
substances never come into existence nor ever go out of existence,
|
||
any world constituted by them will be temporally infinite in extent. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is
|
||
admittedly not the only way of taking ontology to be explanatory. We
|
||
have acknowledged that it is possible to hold that time is just an
|
||
aspect of what exists. That is what Einsteinians who take spacetime
|
||
to be a substances assume about the ultimate nature of the world.
|
||
Spatiotemporalism, as I called the Einsteinian ontology, is
|
||
compatible with the belief that the universe had a beginning in time,
|
||
for it implies merely that there is a limit to the temporal extent of
|
||
spacetime as a substance that is not itself in time. That makes it
|
||
possible for cosmologists to accept the big bang explanation of the
|
||
origin of the world. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The same
|
||
difference between substantivalism about space and substantivalism
|
||
about spacetime arises concerning the end of the world. It is
|
||
possible, according to the big bang theory that the universe might
|
||
stop expanding and collapse back on itself, and some cosmologists
|
||
hold that such an outcome would mean that time comes to an end. That
|
||
would make time finite in the direction of the future as well as
|
||
toward the past. Such a belief is compatible with Einsteinian
|
||
ontology, because it would merely mean that the temporal dimension of
|
||
spacetime as a substance comes to an end in both directions. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There is,
|
||
however, no way to reconcile spatiomaterialism with either a
|
||
beginning or an end to the universe it time, because in either case,
|
||
it would be to give up its view about the nature of existence and
|
||
time and, thereby, the kind of ontological explanation it gives. To
|
||
be sure, it is possible for ontologists to hold that existence is in
|
||
time and to believe the universe had a beginning. That is the view
|
||
that theists hold. The big bang could be just the way in which God
|
||
created the world, and the need for such an explanation of the big
|
||
bang explains why the Pope authorized discussion of the big bang
|
||
theory so early in its career. But theism gives up naturalism, which
|
||
is the first of our basic assumption. Any God who could create the
|
||
natural world would have to be outside space and time and, thus, not
|
||
something that naturalism can accept. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Space.</i>
|
||
The other reason that spatiomaterialism cannot accept the big bang
|
||
explanation of the origin and development of the universe is what it
|
||
believes about space, and two aspects of its assumptions are at
|
||
stake. One is its theoretical preference for believing that space is
|
||
infinite, and the other is its basic assumption that space is a
|
||
substance. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Infinity.</i>
|
||
Ontologists would prefer to believe that space is infinite in extent,
|
||
as well as in its divisibility, because that is the simplest theory.
|
||
The essential nature of each part of space can be defined as having
|
||
three-dimensional geometrical relations to every other part of space,
|
||
for each part would have such relations to a different, ordered set
|
||
of other parts of space. But if space is finite, each part must have
|
||
a different essential nature, because each part will have a different
|
||
spatial relation to the edge of space. And that is not to mention the
|
||
problem in explaining how space could have an end. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If space is
|
||
infinite in extent, it is hard to see how space could expand, because
|
||
there would be, so to speak, no room for more space. All the places
|
||
in space would already exist. How could ontologists make any sense of
|
||
the notion?</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Cosmologists
|
||
assume that they can take space to be finite in extent without
|
||
encountering any problems about the end of space by holding that
|
||
spacetime throughout the universe is curved. If spacetime contains
|
||
enough matter, then Einstein’s general theory of relativity implies
|
||
that a spacetime universe will curve back on itself. If we use
|
||
two-dimensional space to represent three-dimensional space, then this
|
||
possibility is supposed to be modeled by the geometry of the surface
|
||
of a sphere (or Riemannian geometry). But that is not a possible form
|
||
of spatiomaterialism, because spatiomaterialism replaces the belief
|
||
in curved spacetime with the belief in the acceleration of the
|
||
inherent motion in absolute, three dimensional space. Apart from
|
||
Einstein’s general theory of relativity, there is no reason to
|
||
believe that space is curved. Indeed, there is no reason to believe
|
||
that curved space is even possible, if space is a substance. The
|
||
ability to construct a formal axiom system for curved space does not
|
||
show that it is ontologically possible. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Substantivalism.</i>
|
||
Though it is possible for space to be finite in extend in a
|
||
spatiomaterial world, it is not possible for space to expand. To be
|
||
sure, if space were finite, the lack of room for the expansion of
|
||
space would not be a problem. But there would still be an insuperable
|
||
ontological objection to assuming that it expands, because if space
|
||
is a substance, the expansion of space would be just another way for
|
||
something to come from nothing. The measure of space is the distance
|
||
between parts of space in three dimensions, and if distances were
|
||
actually increasing, there would have to be more spatial substance
|
||
separating the points. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Since
|
||
the big bang theory contradicts spatiomaterialism, it is relevant for
|
||
ontological philosophy to consider the reasons for believing in the
|
||
big bang, for they may provide reasons for doubting that
|
||
spatiomaterialism can be used to do philosophy in this new way. There
|
||
are two kinds of reasons for believing in big bang cosmogony and the
|
||
subsequent expansion of the universe, one theoretical and the other
|
||
empirical, and as we shall see, neither is a good reason for doubting
|
||
that this is a spatiomaterial world. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_15" align="right" hspace="5" width="250" height="33" border="0">heoretical
|
||
foundation of big bang cosmogony. </b></i>The theory behind big bang
|
||
cosmogony is Einstein’s general theory of relativity. In 1917,
|
||
shortly after completing his general theory of relativity and before
|
||
Hubble had discovered evidence of the expansion of the universe,
|
||
Einstein himself turned his attention to cosmology. Einstein used the
|
||
basic equation of his general theory of relativity to represent the
|
||
entire universe, assuming, in effect, that the universe contains a
|
||
finite quantity of mass and is finite in extent. A finite universe
|
||
was not implausible to Einstein, because he believed in spacetime,
|
||
rather than space enduring through time, and a finite spacetime
|
||
universe can contain enough mass and energy for spacetime to curve
|
||
back on itself, giving the universe as a whole a spherical geometry.
|
||
There would be no edges of space to explain, because traveling far
|
||
enough in any direction would bring one back to where one started.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Einstein
|
||
soon discovered, however, that even in a universe with spherical
|
||
geometry, gravitation, being a universal attractive force, would
|
||
quickly lead to the collapse of the universe. The tendency toward
|
||
gravitational collapse is even greater than in the Newtonian
|
||
counterpart of Einstein’s way of representing the universe (which
|
||
takes the universe to be a finite sphere of material objects in
|
||
infinite space all attracting one another). On its own, Einstein’s
|
||
universe would crash in on itself in about the time required for
|
||
light to cross the universe. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
order to keep his equation from predicting the collapse of the
|
||
universe, Einstein introduced the so-called “cosmological
|
||
constant.” It was a perfectly legitimate move, because it was a
|
||
constant of integration. That is, his general relativity equation had
|
||
to be integrated in order to represent the universe, and Einstein
|
||
initially set the constant of integration as zero. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The left
|
||
side of Einstein’s equation in the general theory is a differential
|
||
equation that represents the metric of curved spacetime, while the
|
||
right side of his equation represents the presence of mass and energy
|
||
in spacetime. To set the constant of integration on the right side
|
||
equal to zero was to assume, in effect, that the force of gravitation
|
||
falls to zero at great distances. That is what led to the problem of
|
||
collapse of the universe.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It was also
|
||
possible to set the constant of integration at something other than
|
||
zero. That would represent a repulsive force between material objects
|
||
at great distances from one another. It would be a very small force
|
||
at short range, such as the solar system, but the repulsive force
|
||
would increase with distance. Hence, it would be the dominant force
|
||
at large scales, and his general relativity equation would no longer
|
||
predict the collapse of the universe. This was the origin of the
|
||
cosmological constant. It suggested that there is a form of negative
|
||
energy associated with the vacuum, and it could make the universe
|
||
static by canceling out the gravitational attraction at great
|
||
distances. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
cosmological constant was destined, however,, however, to be
|
||
rejected, because it implied that the universe is unstable. Though it
|
||
could be used to represent a static state in which gravitation and
|
||
long-range repulsion are equal, it was inevitably a precarious
|
||
balance. The problem is that gravitation falls off with the square of
|
||
distance, while the repulsive force represented by the cosmological
|
||
constant increases linearly with distance. Thus, a slight contraction
|
||
in the universe would make the gravitational force stronger than the
|
||
repulsive force could resist and the universe would collapse. On the
|
||
other hand, a slight expansion of the universe would make the
|
||
repulsive force stronger than gravitation, and the universe would
|
||
expand faster and faster. In either case, it was not likely to remain
|
||
the same size. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">When Edwin
|
||
Hubble’s evidence for the expansion of the universe became known in
|
||
1929, it seemed that Einstein’s mistake was the attempt to
|
||
represent the universe as static. If the universe is expanding, the
|
||
size of the universe must be a dynamic phenomenon. Since his
|
||
equations had told him, in effect, that the universe is not static,
|
||
Einstein retracted his cosmological constant. He called it his
|
||
“biggest blunder,” which big bang cosmologists rarely fail to
|
||
mention, taking comfort in his agreement. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
equation from Einstein’s general theory of relativity was adapted
|
||
for big bang cosmogony, because it could be used to represent a
|
||
universe in which the initial pressure and outward momentum of the
|
||
expansion is countered by the universal gravitational attraction. The
|
||
“Einstein-de Sitter model of the universe” is one such theory. It
|
||
holds that gravitation will bring the expansion of the universe to a
|
||
halt at the end of eternity. Preference for this view has posed a
|
||
problem for cosmologists, because all indications are that there is
|
||
far less matter in the universe than such a limit to its expansion
|
||
would require. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Spatiomaterialists
|
||
critique.</i> Ontological philosophy has a different way of
|
||
interpreting Einsteinian cosmology which is based on its ontological
|
||
explanation of the truth of Einstein’s general theory of
|
||
relativity. Spatiomaterialism assumes that space is an infinite,
|
||
three dimensional substance enduring through time, and it explains
|
||
why Einstein’s general relativity equation yields true predictions
|
||
of gravitational phenomena by holding that the accumulation of matter
|
||
at any location in space causes an inbound acceleration of the
|
||
inherent motion in the surrounding space. On this view, space is
|
||
assumed to be infinite, and the so-called called the “curvature of
|
||
spacetime” turns out to be just an acceleration of the inherent
|
||
motion of space (that is, an acceleration of the ether, as an aspect
|
||
of space). If that effect of matter accumulation of space is what
|
||
makes Einstein’s equation true, then there much to criticize in its
|
||
use as the theoretical underpinning for big bang cosmology. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
most basic objection to Einsteinian cosmogony is the use of
|
||
Einstein’s question to represent the entire universe. That is to
|
||
assume that the universe contains only a finite amount of mass and
|
||
energy (that is, matter) and that spacetime is finite. But thus far
|
||
in this ontological argument, we have still found no reason to
|
||
believe that space is finite in extent or that the total quantity of
|
||
matter is finite. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
is not to deny that Einstein’s general relativity equation can be
|
||
used to represent a sizable chunk of the universe. Indeed, the truth
|
||
of that representation is what was explained ontologically in the
|
||
<font face="Arial, sans-serif">General theory of relativity</font>.
|
||
But when we recognize that it represents only a region of space and
|
||
the matter contained by that region, we can see that Einstein’s
|
||
introduction of a cosmological constant was not a mistake at all, but
|
||
merely a way of representing the infinity of the space and matter
|
||
outside that region.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Einstein
|
||
introduced the cosmological constant as a constant of integration in
|
||
the integration of his general relativity equation. But he introduced
|
||
it on the right-hand side of that equation. Since that side
|
||
represents the mass and energy contained in the region, the
|
||
cosmological constant that was needed to make the universe static
|
||
seems to represent a repulsive force which is counteracting
|
||
gravitational attraction. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However,
|
||
the constant of integration could have been introduced on the left
|
||
hand side of Einstein’s general relativity equation, which
|
||
represents the metric of spacetime. That may seem like a mere
|
||
mathematical correction to the geometry of curved spacetime. But it
|
||
could be interpreted as representing the infinity of space and matter
|
||
beyond the region covered by the equation. If the universe is
|
||
infinite, rest of the universe is, in effect, tugging at the edges of
|
||
the finite region of spacetime represented by the equation, keeping
|
||
its overall curvature flat. The cosmological constant does not
|
||
represent a negative force that increases with distance, but simply a
|
||
constant of integration that must be included in order to take into
|
||
account the rest of the infinite universe. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus,
|
||
ontological philosophy would lead us to see Einstein’s greatest
|
||
blunder, not as introducing the cosmological constant, but as giving
|
||
it up. For that concession comes from failing to recognize that what
|
||
is described by his general theory is just a gravitational force that
|
||
works through space in a world in which space is an infinite
|
||
substance enduring through time, that is, in which space and time are
|
||
absolute. Einstein’s mistake was to believe in spacetime. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Thus,
|
||
we conclude that the truth of Einstein’s general theory of
|
||
relativity gives us no reason to think that the universe might be
|
||
expanding and, thus, no reason to believe that it began with a big
|
||
bang. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>E<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_16" align="right" hspace="5" width="250" height="27" border="0">mpirical
|
||
foundation of big bang cosmogony.</b></i> Though Einstein’s general
|
||
theory of relativity is the main theoretical reason for believing in
|
||
a big bang, it is probably not the most important reason. The most
|
||
persuasive reasons are empirical. It seems to be the best explanation
|
||
of three phenomena: the apparent explanation of the universe, the
|
||
proportion of helium in the universe, and the background radiation.
|
||
However, in a spatiomaterial world, as we shall see, there is another
|
||
possible explanation of those same phenomena, and it is far more
|
||
plausible. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>H<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAEcAAAAOCAMAAABKOfGJAAAAYFBMVEXjx5vVu5HHroi4on6qlXSciWqOfGF/cFdxY01jV0MybUFVSjpyMSZlMSZGPjA4MSYqJR18AAB2AABmAAAcGBMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABrlwRxAAAAz0lEQVR4nK2T4W5DIQiFAUG5sQO71vd/1eH1rmu3Zv1RT8jBEPPlECOc1wjOfYngs8MCdbgMDjEA0z5J+cFuLbS95LACKO+TcbyzWwv5a07lURowbtZwmsLmDTGhuU9Oc8NKyaDSc46r+sFRkHIYGWuJzYyOPFScc94cf0fr0H/2+uawHjbwY9u8tUFyalKZapVS/+Mkl8Zs7GmaYhORyFPY0uCkGDNYgWv+w7l/LylClCPCtCgtEQTzfIO8X4CojM85b2slZ82/uJw+Fuj0BVp/HHNn5UQmAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="TtsOtkCLCos_17" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="29" border="0">ubble’s
|
||
law. </i>In 1929, Hubble published the result of his work at the
|
||
Mount Wilson gathering evidence about the spectra of distant
|
||
galaxies. He reported that galaxies are moving away from earth, and
|
||
moving away faster the farther away they already are. That is
|
||
Hubble’s law.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Hubble
|
||
found a red-shift in the electromagnetic radiation from distant
|
||
galaxies, that is, a shift of radiation from known sources toward
|
||
longer wavelengths, and as far as he could measure (about 10 million
|
||
light years), the red-shift increased directly with the galaxy’s
|
||
distance. Such a shift could be explained as a Doppler effect. It is
|
||
well established that the wavelength of a signal sent from an object
|
||
moving away is elongated. Assuming that the red-shift he had observed
|
||
is a Doppler effect, Hubble argued that the galaxies he had observed
|
||
were moving away from earth, and his data indicated that the farther
|
||
galaxies were away from earth, the faster they were moving. Hubble’s
|
||
law states that the recession velocity of a galaxy increases directly
|
||
with its distance, and the constant of proportionality is Hubble’s
|
||
constant. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Hubble’s
|
||
own calculation of his constant is now though to have been off by a
|
||
factor of two, though to this day, there is still considerable
|
||
uncertainty about what it is. Current measurements seem to cluster
|
||
around two different values. (One group finds that galaxies have
|
||
about 15 kilometers per second of additional velocity for every
|
||
million years of additional distance from earth, while another group
|
||
finds them to have about 25 kilometers per second of additional
|
||
velocity for every million years of additional distance from earth.) </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
correlation between the distance to a galaxy and the velocity its
|
||
recession suggests that the whole universe is expanding, because that
|
||
is how it would appear not only from earth, but everywhere, if the
|
||
universe were expanding. Though strictly speaking, the red-shift of
|
||
distant galaxies would not be a Doppler effect, because their
|
||
recession velocity does not come from moving through space, but
|
||
rather from the expansion of space itself, it is assumed to come to
|
||
the same thing quantitatively. (The wavelength of a photon is
|
||
supposed to increase with the expansion of the space it is crossing.)
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Hubble’s
|
||
law makes it possible to calculate the age of universe, because if
|
||
galaxies are all receding from one another as that law describes,
|
||
there must have been some time in the past at which they were all
|
||
located together at the same point. Current estimates tend to cluster
|
||
on either an age of about 20 billion years or 10 billion years,
|
||
depending on which value of the Hubble constant one accepts. There is
|
||
considerable room for error. First, it is necessary to separate out
|
||
the “peculiar motion” of galaxies which is caused by local
|
||
gravitational effect (and that is a significant factor, since nearby
|
||
galaxies are the ones mainly used to measure Hubble’s constant).
|
||
And if the expansion of the universe has been slowing down because of
|
||
the gravitational attraction between galaxies, as cosmologists
|
||
assume, then the estimate of the age of the universe should be
|
||
considerably lower (by as much as one-third).</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>N<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_18" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="27" border="0">ucleosynthesis.</i>
|
||
The measured expansion of the universe supports the idea that the
|
||
universe began with a big bang, but that idea was first proposed by
|
||
George Gamow in 1947. The evidence Gamow offered for such a beginning
|
||
is the prediction of the proportion of helium and other light
|
||
elements in the universe, which has been confirmed. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Gamow
|
||
thought of the initial state of the universe as being nothing but an
|
||
intense radiation with a very high temperature. He assumed that the
|
||
objects with rest mass would be created by high energy photons.
|
||
(Since most of the rest mass in the universe is now composed of
|
||
baryons, that would not explain what happened to all the antibaryons
|
||
that must have been created at the same time.) And Gamow assumed that
|
||
the pressure of radiation at such a high temperature was responsible
|
||
for the expansion the universe, though without any space outside into
|
||
which it could expand, it had to create its own space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Particles
|
||
would be created, and as the expansion continued, the temperature
|
||
would fall. Gamow recognized that at some point the density of
|
||
nucleons and the energy of their interaction would be enough for
|
||
nucleons fused into small nuclei to be stable (between 10 and 100
|
||
billion degrees Kelvin). He explained the proportion of helium (with
|
||
two protons and two neutrons) that is found in the universe (about 25
|
||
to 28 percent by weight). Similar reasons can be given for the
|
||
proportion of matter in the form of deuterium (one proton and one
|
||
neutron), helium-3 (two protons and one neutron), and some lithium
|
||
and boron. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Since there
|
||
is no other plausible explanation of their relative abundance in the
|
||
universe, this is good empirical evidence of a period in the past
|
||
during which the temperature of the universe was once much higher
|
||
than it is now and that is has been falling since then. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>B<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_19" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="48" border="0">ackground
|
||
radiation.</i> In 1966, Arno Penzias and Robert W. Wilson, discovered
|
||
radiation coming from all directions in space, day and night, every
|
||
season of the year in the microwave region of the electromagnetic
|
||
spectrum. It was the wavelength that one would expect of an object
|
||
with a temperature of 2.7 degrees above absolute zero. They
|
||
recognized that the radiation must have a cosmic source, and they
|
||
argued that it must have been caused by the big bang and the
|
||
subsequent expansion of the universe. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
radiation must come from a period long after the nucleosynthesis
|
||
discovered by Gamow, because for a long period of time, the
|
||
electromagnetic radiation would have been sufficiently energetic to
|
||
break any bonds that electrons might form with the nuclei bouncing
|
||
around at the time. About 100,000 years after the big bang itself the
|
||
universe would have expanded enough for the temperature to fall to a
|
||
level that would allow atoms to be stable. Neutralizing the charges
|
||
of electrons and nuclei in that way allowed photons to pass
|
||
unhindered for great distances. The period at which the universe
|
||
became transparent would explain the origin of the cosmic background
|
||
radiation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">These
|
||
empirical reasons for believing in the big bang are independent of
|
||
general relativity. Even though spatiomaterialism can reject
|
||
Einsteinian cosmology because of the assumptions it makes, these
|
||
observations are still evidence for the big bang. But since they are
|
||
just observations, they support the belief that the universe has been
|
||
expanding ever since a big bang only if that is the best explanation
|
||
of them. Thus, the empirical foundation for contemporary cosmogony
|
||
can be undermined by offering a better explanation of those
|
||
observations. There is at least one way that spatiomaterialism can do
|
||
just that.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">S<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_20" align="right" hspace="5" width="175" height="52" border="0">patiomaterialist
|
||
cosmogony. </font>The spatiomaterialist alternative to received
|
||
cosmogony will be presented here in two stages. First, I will show
|
||
that spatiomaterialism is not falsified by the evidence for the big
|
||
bang because is has another way of explaining it, a way that make it
|
||
a better theory, at least in the eyes of ontologists. Then, I will
|
||
show that there is a variation on it that is an even better
|
||
explanation of all the relevant evidence, because it also explains
|
||
certain observations that are currently acknowledged to be puzzling
|
||
and problematic. I call the first stage of this explanation “the
|
||
big shrink” and the second stage the theory of “local big
|
||
shrinks.”</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_21" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="27" border="0">he
|
||
big shrink.</b></i> It is possible to explain all the observations
|
||
offered in support of the big bang theory without supposing that the
|
||
universe is expanding, because they can be explained at least as well
|
||
by the shrinking of particles with rest mass in size.
|
||
Spatiomaterialism assumes that space and matter are infinite in
|
||
extent and that they have existed from eternity. But let us assume
|
||
for now that the universe as we know it did begin with a singular
|
||
event, which is currently called the “big bang.” But instead of
|
||
assuming that it was like an explosion, let us assume it was more
|
||
like an implosion. Instead of a big bang, it could have been a big
|
||
shrink.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
theory assumes that until that point in the history of the universe,
|
||
space was filled with matter. All the particles with rest mass were
|
||
so big that they coincided with every part of space. Since according
|
||
to our theory of the basic particles, the proton never decays, we
|
||
should think of space as being densely packed with baryons, or
|
||
triplets of quarks, all existing side-by-side everywhere. There need
|
||
not even be any electrons, if these baryons were all neutrons. There
|
||
is nothing inconceivable about infinite space and matter existing in
|
||
that condition from eternity. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Possibility
|
||
of big shrink.</i> What is called the “big bang” could have been
|
||
what happened when all that rest mass matter started shrinking.
|
||
Assume that the shrinking happened simultaneously everywhere in
|
||
space. Set aside for now why it occurred when it did. Just suppose
|
||
that it happened. Our theory about the nature of the basic particles
|
||
explains how it would be possible.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Such a
|
||
shrinkage of particles with rest mass is possible, on our theory of
|
||
the basic objects, because baryons are constituted by both space and
|
||
matter. If quarks are weakons traveling on twisted circular pathways
|
||
provided by neutrinos, the condition of matter at the beginning could
|
||
be explained by the huge size of those neutrinos. The shrinkage of
|
||
rest mass matter in size could then be explained by the neutrinos
|
||
shrinking in size. The quarks (and, thus, the baryons) would become
|
||
smaller, and since there is only a finite amount of matter in any
|
||
finite region of space, distances between baryons would begin to
|
||
grow. Thus, the “big shrink,” as I will call it, would not
|
||
require space to expand. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The strong
|
||
forces between baryons, mediated by mesons, could have held neutrons
|
||
together from eternity. But as baryons began to shrink, spaces
|
||
between them would begin to open up, and at least at the boundaries
|
||
where empty space appeared, particles and small clumps would break
|
||
off and start moving and interacting with one another. The strong
|
||
force is actually a repulsive force at small distance between
|
||
independent hadrons, tending to keep them apart, but the temperature
|
||
might be high enough in places for them to fuse again into masses.
|
||
The weak force would make neutrons decay into protons, leaving
|
||
electrons to interact independently, and if the temperatures were
|
||
high enough, they would interact like a plasma. But let me set aside
|
||
for now the description of how they move and interact in order to
|
||
focus on the effects of the big shrink on photons and the basic
|
||
forces of nature. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Photons
|
||
would be generated in the usual way by the interaction of charged
|
||
objects. But photons would be unaffected by the shrinkage of rest
|
||
mass matter, because they are not constituted by neutrinos. They are
|
||
quantum cycles that coincide with space in a way that moves them
|
||
along at the velocity of light, though at first they would not be
|
||
able to travel very far before they were scattered by charged
|
||
objects. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Nor would
|
||
the electromagnetic force be affected directly by the shrinking of
|
||
neutrinos. The electromagnetic field is imposed on space, as we have
|
||
seen, by electric charges, and they would do so in the same way
|
||
(which we have assumed involves a universal pulsation in which a 180<sup>0</sup>
|
||
phase shift distinguishes negative from positive). Since space is not
|
||
changed, this reflection of electric charges in space would be the
|
||
same. However, the particles carrying the electric charges would be
|
||
much larger, and thus, the electric and magnetic forces would be much
|
||
weaker relative to the weak force. That is, virtual photons by which
|
||
the electromagnetic force acts on particles with rest mass would be
|
||
the same size, but the charged particles would be much bigger and,
|
||
thus, less affected by their point like charges. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The short
|
||
range forces would dominate interactions. The weak force is also
|
||
mediated by gauge bosons, and the main role of virtual weakons is to
|
||
exert forces that keep the quantum cycles of weakons traveling along
|
||
their neutrino pathways and to keep the neutrinos lined up as twisted
|
||
circles in quarks, though they also mediate all the decay patterns of
|
||
high energy particles. The color force would work the same way, given
|
||
our theory of the basic particles, because gluons are just how the
|
||
weak force keeps the quarks lined up either in triplets or
|
||
quark-antiquark pairs (when the weakons are contorted by traveling
|
||
twisted circles). Hence, the strong force would work the same way as
|
||
it does now, except that the mesons would be much larger and its
|
||
reach would much greater. Since there is a neutral weakon, <i>Z</i><sup><i>0</i></sup>,
|
||
the weak force could also mediate elastic collisions among particles
|
||
as well as keeping the basic objects together. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
gravitational force would also work basically the same way with
|
||
swollen rest mass matter, because on our theory, it is just the
|
||
effect of accumulations of matter on the inherent motion in space.
|
||
But there would be one important difference. The particles with rest
|
||
mass would be much bigger and have much less rest mass. The quantity
|
||
of rest mass depends on the number of quantum cycles per second
|
||
involved in their constitution, and with larger neutrinos, the
|
||
weakons would have farther to travel. Baryons and leptons would,
|
||
therefore, have fewer quantum cycles per second, or less rest mass.
|
||
That would affect the sizes of the quantum kinetic cycles by which
|
||
particles with rest mass move across space, because according to this
|
||
ontological explanation of quantum mechanics, the wavelengths of the
|
||
quantum kinetic cycles are scaled according to the mass of the object
|
||
(that is, constitute momentum, not just velocity). The smaller rest
|
||
masses of particles together with their swollen sizes would mean,
|
||
however, that the gravitational force has considerably less effect on
|
||
what happens. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Compatibility
|
||
of spatiomaterialism.</i> Unlike the big bang, the big shrink is
|
||
compatible with spatiomaterialism. It is not necessary to deny that
|
||
space is infinite nor to believe that space is expanding. And given
|
||
the spatiomaterialist ontological explanation of the basic particles,
|
||
we can conceive how the big shrink would work. There would be no
|
||
change in Planck’s constant, only a change in the size of
|
||
neutrinos. But as the shrinking of neutrinos continued, the quantum
|
||
cycles constituting particles with rest mass would speed up. The
|
||
increase in their rest masses would mean an increase in gravitational
|
||
force-field matter, because the gravitational force is in proportion
|
||
to mass and the distances in space across which the force is acting
|
||
will be increasing. That is, the force-field matter of the
|
||
gravitational field would increase with the total quantity of quantum
|
||
matter. But that seems to be a violation of the conservation of
|
||
matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Such an
|
||
increase in the total quantity of matter in the universe is not,
|
||
however, unthinkable at this point. It does not pose the same problem
|
||
for spatiomaterialism as the expansion of space would, because it is
|
||
possible to conceive how it would happen, even in an infinite world. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
it does violate the conservation of matter. But we merely used the
|
||
principle of the conservation of mass and energy as working
|
||
hypothesis by which to figure out what spatiomaterialism had to
|
||
assume about the forms of matter in order to explain the natural
|
||
processes described by classical physics. Having done that, we are
|
||
now in a position to derive new conclusions about the world from
|
||
spatiomaterialism. If the universe began with a big shrink, then the
|
||
total quantity of matter has been increasing ever since. That is just
|
||
the nature of a spatiomaterial world with the big shrink.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However, at
|
||
the second stage of this theory, we will see how matter can be
|
||
conserved, even though its total quantity increases throughout the
|
||
big shrink. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i>Explanation
|
||
of relevant phenomena.</i> As the shrinking of rest mass matter
|
||
continued after the beginning, physical processes would take place
|
||
that could explain the phenomena cited as evidence for the big bang.
|
||
At first, the strong (and weak) force would dominate, holding large
|
||
clumps of neutrons together as they separated from one another. They
|
||
would be cool, but energetic interaction would occur only at their
|
||
boundaries. Assuming that the shrinking were fast enough, the
|
||
continued shrinking of particles with rest mass would eventually
|
||
break up the clumps of neutron into smaller clumps and independent
|
||
baryons along with other particles. But since huge groups of baryons
|
||
would already be separated by huge distances, the increasing strength
|
||
of the gravitational force would draw the still swollen matter into
|
||
collisions with one another where the temperature would be high
|
||
(relative to their size). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Nucleosynthesis.
|
||
</i>As some point in the shrinking of matter, the temperature would
|
||
reach a point at which larger clusters of neutrons would be broken up
|
||
by the kinetic energy of their interaction and only small nuclei
|
||
would be stable. Since it would depend on the temperature of their
|
||
interaction, such a process could give rise to the same proportion of
|
||
helium and other small nuclei that Gamow predicted.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Background
|
||
radiation.</i> There would also be point during the big shrink when
|
||
electrons and nuclei through out the universe would become coupled in
|
||
atoms, making it possible for photons to travel long distances
|
||
without interacting with charged particles. The wavelengths of those
|
||
photons would mirror the swollen sizes and lowered masses of the
|
||
charged particles that were interacting, and since those elongated
|
||
photons would not shrink further, that would explain the cosmic
|
||
background radiation. We are parts of galaxies in which rest mass
|
||
matter is much smaller as a result of the continued shrinking, and
|
||
thus, the photons generated when nuclei and electrons were much
|
||
larger would have a much longer wavelength than photons generated by
|
||
similar processes on earth.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><i>Hubble’s
|
||
law.</i> The big shrink would explain why Hubble’s law appears to
|
||
be true. At some point during the big shrink stars would from, and
|
||
assuming that the shrinking has continued throughout the universe to
|
||
this day, the radiation generated by those bigger and slower
|
||
processes would have a longer wave length. In fact, there would be a
|
||
correlation between the red shift observed in galaxies and their
|
||
distances from earth, because light from more distant galaxies would
|
||
have spent more time traveling before being intercepted by us, and it
|
||
would be measured as longer by us, since the rest mass matter
|
||
constituting us would have shrunk more since it was emitted than from
|
||
galaxies that lie nearer to earth. To be sure, the red shift would
|
||
not indicate the expansion of space nor the velocity of their
|
||
recession, but rather how much matter had shrunk since the time the
|
||
light was emitted. That would require a reinterpretation of Hubble’s
|
||
constant. However, there would still be a correlation between the red
|
||
shift and distance, which is the observation in which Hubble based
|
||
his law about recession velocities. And it would be possible to use
|
||
the red shift to measure the relative distances of faint galaxies. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is not impossible, therefore, to explain the three main observations
|
||
used as evidence for big bang cosmology in another way — one that
|
||
is compatible with spatiomaterialism. And since the big shrink theory
|
||
does not have to hold that something comes from nothing, it is <i>prima
|
||
facie </i>a better theory, if it possible — at least in the eyes of
|
||
naturalists, who believe that the natural world is constituted by
|
||
substances that exist independently of themselves. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
possibility of big shrink, instead of a big bang, makes it possible,
|
||
therefore, to believe that the universe is infinite in every way,
|
||
except for the finite divisibility of matter. Both space and time are
|
||
infinite in both senses, being infinitely divisible, or continuous,
|
||
as well as infinite in extent. Time is eternal not only in the
|
||
direction of the future, but also toward the past, for it is not
|
||
necessary to believe that substance comes into existence, as entailed
|
||
by the big bang theory, though there was a time when the big shrink
|
||
began. And since space is infinite in extent, the total quantity of
|
||
matter in the universe can also be infinite, even though there is a
|
||
finite quantity in any finite region of space.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
the big shrink does imply that the total quantity of quantum matter
|
||
in any closed region of space is increasing. But that extra matter
|
||
does not come from nothing. It comes from the matter that exists at
|
||
the time and the shrinking of neutrinos. Since neutrinos are just an
|
||
aspect of space having to do with its interaction with weakons,
|
||
neutrino size could be just a changing property of space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
increase in the total quantity of quantum matter in any closed region
|
||
is conceivable because matter is finitely divisible. The existence of
|
||
elementary units of matter is the only way in which the universe does
|
||
not have a twofold infinite in its basic aspects: time, space and
|
||
matter. And there is, as we shall see, a way that the total quantity
|
||
of matter in sufficiently large regions of space can be conserved
|
||
even though quantum matter increases during the big shrink.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is, however, still a problem about big shrink cosmology, because it
|
||
does not explain why the big shrink happened when it did. Even if the
|
||
substances constituting the universe always existed, the big bang
|
||
still implies there was a change at some moment when rest masses
|
||
suddenly started shrinking. Why did it happen then? </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>L<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="TtsOtkCLCos_22" align="right" hspace="5" width="150" height="29" border="0">ocal
|
||
big shrinks.</b></i> Not only can spatiomaterialism offer a better
|
||
explanation of the observational evidence used to support the big
|
||
bang theory than the big bang theory, but like so many times before
|
||
in this ontological argument, it opens up the possibility of a
|
||
explanation which heretofore has not even been considered. In this
|
||
case, the fruitfulness of spatiomaterialism as a way of explaining
|
||
the natural world is shown by its solution to the problem about when
|
||
this remarkable event occurs. That is the second stage of the
|
||
spatiomaterialist ontological explanation of the origin of the
|
||
universe, the “theory of local big shrinks.” What is more,
|
||
however, it solves other cosmological puzzles posed by current
|
||
astronomical observations. Thus, unless this approach is on the wrong
|
||
track, some such theory as they will make a credible claim to being
|
||
the best explanation of astronomical phenomena, according to the
|
||
empirical method of science. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is not necessary to explain why the big shrink occurred when it did
|
||
in order to believe that substance has always existed, because its is
|
||
possible to hold that the big shrink is a local event, rather than a
|
||
global event. A big shrink could occur repeatedly as time passes, but
|
||
in different places at different times. That is the theory of local
|
||
big shrinks. It holds that the universe has always existed pretty
|
||
much as it appears now. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The theory
|
||
of local big shrinks is, therefore, a “steady state” theory of
|
||
the universe. Such a theory was advanced in 1948 by Herman Bondi,
|
||
Thomas Gold, and independently by its most famous defender, Fred
|
||
Hoyle. Their steady state theory accepted that the universe was
|
||
expanding, and it held that matter comes into existence as hydrogen
|
||
atoms (or, later, so called Planck particles). This was the result of
|
||
a so-called “creation field,” which is one way of interpreting
|
||
Einstein’s cosmological constant. A creation field requires new
|
||
physical processes, but so does the big bang theory. Thus, it was
|
||
once considered a viable alternative to the big bang theory. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The steady
|
||
state theory has, however, fallen into to disfavor. It could not
|
||
explain the cosmic background radiation, when it was discovered. And
|
||
since it assumes that the universe appears the same way at every
|
||
moment in its history, it cannot explain the evidence that the
|
||
universe was previously in a radically different condition. For
|
||
example, quasars are extremely intense sources of radiation, but
|
||
since they tend to have an extremely high red shift, they must be far
|
||
away (according to Hubble’s law), and thus, most cosmologists take
|
||
quasars to be characteristic of a much earlier era in the history of
|
||
the universe. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The local
|
||
big shrink theory is, however, different from the traditional steady
|
||
state theory. It does not agree that the universe is expanding, but
|
||
explains that appearance by the shrinking of rest mass matter. And as
|
||
we shall see, it can explain the background radiation. Indeed, it can
|
||
explain all the phenomena covered by the big bang theory, including
|
||
quasars.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
scale of the local big shrink on this theory is roughly that of a
|
||
supercluster of galaxies. It has recently been recognized that the
|
||
large scale structure of the universe includes not only stars
|
||
configured as galaxies, but also clusters of galaxies, and clusters
|
||
of clusters, or superclusters of galaxies. Indeed, it now seems that
|
||
there are vast empty regions of space between such clusters of
|
||
galaxies that look something like soap bubbles because of how they
|
||
are bounded by galaxies. Let us assume, therefore, that from time to
|
||
time in such empty regions, very swollen matter comes to exist and
|
||
starts to shrink as described above. Let me also emphasize some
|
||
aspects of this process and also refine the assumptions we are making
|
||
about the big shrink.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">We
|
||
assume that particles with rest mass start off packed together in a
|
||
swollen condition coinciding with a huge region of space. Assuming it
|
||
was made of baryons held together by the strong force, it would be
|
||
like a giant neutron star. Since this matter would be surrounded by
|
||
empty space, there would be a gravitational attraction that tends to
|
||
pull all the particles towards the center of mass. It might seem,
|
||
therefore, that a local big shrink could not develop as described
|
||
above, because the gravitational force would accumulate enough to
|
||
cause a giant black hole. But that is not inevitable, for two
|
||
reasons. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">First, the
|
||
condition of matter at the beginning makes the gravitational force
|
||
weaker in its effect. The weakons are traveling the pathways of much
|
||
larger neutrinos in baryons and charged leptons, and thus, those
|
||
particles are constituted by fewer quantum cycles per second than the
|
||
same kinds of particles on earth. On our theory, that means that they
|
||
are not only larger, but that they also have less rest mass. Hence,
|
||
the gravitational field that they impose on space will be much weaker
|
||
than it comes to be later on. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Second, let
|
||
us assume that the shrinking is initially much more rapid than it is
|
||
later. In fact, we will assume that the shrinking slows down
|
||
asymptotically to a limit that is not much smaller than matter
|
||
constituting earth. Though at first, the electromagnetic force is
|
||
weaker and interactions among basic particles are dominated by the
|
||
strong force (and the weak force), the rate of shrinkage could be
|
||
fast enough for spaces to open up between huge clumps of baryons that
|
||
are still held together by the strong force. These huge clumps of
|
||
matter would still attract one another by gravitation on the largest
|
||
scale, but if the shrinking were fast enough, they would remain
|
||
isolated from one another, and the main role of gravitation on a
|
||
smaller scale would be to help the strong force hold the remaining
|
||
clumps of matters together.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The same
|
||
process of division could occur more than once. As particles with
|
||
rest mass shrank further, baryons would still tend to stick together
|
||
because of the strong force, and thus, the clumps would subdivide
|
||
into smaller clumps, opening up huge distances between them as they
|
||
continued to shrink. And those sub-clumps of matter might do so
|
||
again. Such a process could explain the large scale structure of a
|
||
supercluster of galaxies, that is, the huge distances between
|
||
clusters of galaxies, between local groups of them, and ultimately
|
||
between single galaxies. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
rapidity of the initial shrinking means that this phase of the local
|
||
big shrink would be completed in much shorter period of time than
|
||
assumed by the big bang theory, because the local big shrink occurs
|
||
in a much smaller region and it does not require galaxies to spend a
|
||
lot of time moving away from one another. Instead, the galaxies would
|
||
“precipitate out” from the original mass of swollen particles as
|
||
they shrink in size. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Eventually,
|
||
however, the shrinking of the basic particles would weaken the strong
|
||
force relative to the electromagnetic force, and the strong force,
|
||
together with gravity, would no longer be able to hold matter
|
||
together in huge clumps. In addition to the kinetic energy of the
|
||
collision among masses of baryons, the repulsive electromagnetic
|
||
forces between protons would help separate them, and the short range
|
||
repulsive force between baryons that are not bound together by the
|
||
strong force would keep them separate. Thus, baryons would break up
|
||
into smaller and smaller clusters and eventually into individual
|
||
baryons. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">As the
|
||
shrinking continued, the temperature would fall, because the
|
||
distances separating baryons and bunches of baryons would increase.
|
||
Gravitation would be pulling them into regions of dense collisions,
|
||
but they would still be too swollen and light to form stars. This is
|
||
the point at which the “nucleosynthesis” that explains the
|
||
proportion of helium and other simple nuclei in the universe would
|
||
take place. Large groups of baryons would be unstable at that
|
||
temperature, but simple nuclei would be stable and remain stable as
|
||
the temperature fell. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Not long
|
||
after that, electrons would couple with nuclei to form atoms, and
|
||
since photons would be able to travel much longer distances, more
|
||
photons would escape into the space beyond these more or less
|
||
isolated clusters of matter, and there would be a vast increase in
|
||
the radiation from them. That would account for the cosmic background
|
||
radiation, because matter would still be swollen enough for the
|
||
photons released to have longer wavelengths. The size of the
|
||
particles would make it appear that it is a 2.7<sup>0</sup> Kelvin
|
||
blackbody radiation, though actually it would be a much higher
|
||
temperature relative to swollen rest mass particles. To be sure,
|
||
photons with even longer wavelengths would have been emitted by
|
||
clusters of matter prior to that, when matter was even more swollen.
|
||
But that radiation would not be nearly as intense, because photons
|
||
could come only from the edges, as the radiation from stars. When the
|
||
region became transparent, however, photons could also escape from
|
||
throughout the clusters of matter, and that is what is observable. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">By
|
||
this point, the “precipitation” from the shrinkage of matter
|
||
would already have isolated galaxies from one another and,
|
||
presumably, made the distribution of matter in each galaxy somewhat
|
||
uneven. But since particles with rest mass have been shrinking in
|
||
size and increasing in rest mass, the total mass accumulated in these
|
||
local regions would increase and gravitation would begin to play the
|
||
dominant role in what happens. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">To be sure,
|
||
from the beginning, gravitation would have been attracting clusters
|
||
of matter toward one another, and that attraction would also increase
|
||
as rest mass increased. But since, initially, gravitation was not
|
||
strong enough to keep up with the effects of shrinking, clumps of
|
||
matter would separate off from one another leaving vast distances
|
||
between them that gravitation could not overcome quickly enough.
|
||
Thus, gravitation would wind up exerting much the kind of attraction
|
||
among galaxies that is observed now. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Within each
|
||
galaxy that precipitated out during that earlier process, however,
|
||
the continued shrinking of matter would increase the effective
|
||
gravitational force, because fermions would be smaller and have
|
||
greater rest masses than ever. Gravitation would play two roles at
|
||
this stage, pulling matter throughout the galaxy towards its center
|
||
and turning regions of relatively denser accumulation of matter
|
||
within each galaxy into stars. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
gravitational attraction at the scale of an entire, separate galaxy
|
||
would create enormous pressures at the center, where matter would
|
||
accumulate, and with smaller, heavier particles, it would be enough
|
||
in most galaxies to create giant black holes which would gobble up
|
||
all the extra matter that had accumulated at the center. They would
|
||
give off, at least for a while, enormous quantities of energy as
|
||
matter tried to spiral into them, and their magnetic fields might
|
||
even spew out prodigious quantities of particles in certain
|
||
directions at enormously high velocities. And the gravitational field
|
||
centered on such a black hole would organize the motion of matter
|
||
throughout the galaxy.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">On a more
|
||
local scale, gravitation would cause the formation of stars of
|
||
various sizes. Regions of highest density would tend to be the first
|
||
to form stars, and those giant stars would explode rather quickly as
|
||
supernovae, spewing heavy nuclei throughout the regions around them.
|
||
Smaller would form from smaller variations in density, and since most
|
||
of them would form later, the planets that formed out the matter
|
||
spiraling into them would be rich in atoms with heavy nuclei. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">[Perhaps,
|
||
some aspect of the process of galactic development by “precipitation”
|
||
from the local big shrink would even account for the observations
|
||
that now lead to the belief that there must be a great deal of dark
|
||
matter that exists in an unusual form.]</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
formation of a black hole and stars would give galaxies the
|
||
appearance they now have, for matter would be much smaller and
|
||
heavier, radiating photons with much shorter wavelengths. Visible
|
||
light would make galaxies observable from great distances, and their
|
||
spectra could be examined by astronomers. Assuming that the shrinking
|
||
of matter had not quite reached its asymptotic limit when it was
|
||
emitted, a red shift is precisely what we would expect to observe
|
||
from earth, where the shrinking has gone on longer. On the other
|
||
hand, assuming that earth is very close to the asymptotic limit where
|
||
matter stops shrinking, it would also explain why there are no
|
||
galaxies with a blue shift, as one would expect, if the shrinking
|
||
went on. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The theory
|
||
of local big shrinks would imply, nevertheless, that Hubble’s law
|
||
is false. Since local big shrinks would be occurring at different
|
||
times at different locations throughout the universe, there would be
|
||
no general correlation between the red shift of a galaxy and its
|
||
distance from earth, as Hubble concluded from his observations. But
|
||
that does not necessarily falsify the theory of many local big
|
||
shrinks. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The reason
|
||
it escapes falsification is the difficulty in measuring the distances
|
||
to faint galaxies. Hubble was able to measure galaxies only up to
|
||
about ten million light years away, and even current attempts to
|
||
extend the range of independent measurement of distance beyond that
|
||
do not yield reliable, independent readings of distances to galaxies
|
||
beyond our supercluster of galaxies. The most reliable measurement of
|
||
distance depends Cepheid variable stars, whose intrinsic brightness
|
||
is known, but it does not reach beyond our own Virgo cluster of
|
||
galaxies, that is, about 50 to 75 million light years away. And
|
||
though supernovae and sheer brightness of galaxies can be used beyond
|
||
that limit, the reliability of those standards has not been
|
||
established. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
correlation between red shift and distance within our supercluster of
|
||
galaxies is what would be expected, according to the theory of local
|
||
big shrinks, since it assumes that all those galaxies were generated
|
||
at roughly the same time by the same local big shrink. The red shift
|
||
of a distant galaxy within our supercluster would be explained by the
|
||
length of time that light has been traveling since it was emitted,
|
||
since both our galaxy would have been shrinking further during that
|
||
entire period. Thus, the red-shift of a galaxy would be a good
|
||
indicator of the relative distances to galaxies within our
|
||
supercluster.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Disagreements
|
||
about Hubble’s constant tend to cluster around two different
|
||
values, one yielding about 20 billion years as the age of the
|
||
universe and the other yielding about 10 billion years. That
|
||
disagreement may be due, in part, to the attempt of one group of
|
||
astronomers to measure the Hubble constant by more distant galaxies,
|
||
some of which are beyond our supercluster, where it is much more
|
||
difficult to measure distance. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus, it is
|
||
possible to reject Hubble’s law as a misinterpretation of data from
|
||
relative nearby galaxies in terms of the big bang theory and its
|
||
assumed expansion of the universe. But recognizing its falsity would
|
||
revolutionize out view of the universe, because red-shift would no
|
||
longer be a reliable way of estimating the distance to faint
|
||
galaxies. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Not
|
||
only can the theory of local big shrinks explain all the phenomena on
|
||
which big bang cosmogony is based, but there are observations that
|
||
can be explained only by the theory of local big shrinks. For
|
||
example, there is accumulating evidence of stars whose lifetimes are
|
||
longer than the lower estimates of the age of the universe based on
|
||
Hubble’s constant. But the most spectacular fallout is that it
|
||
explains the observation of quasars. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Quasars are
|
||
extremely red-shifted light sources that seem far too intense to be
|
||
located as far away as they seem to be according to Hubble’s law.
|
||
Its radiation is typically much more intense than the rest of the
|
||
galaxy of which is a part. The radiation seems to come from something
|
||
like a star, because its strength can vary too quickly for an entire
|
||
galaxy to be its source. And it is widely assumed that the only
|
||
currently plausible such an enormous quantity of energy is a giant
|
||
black hole which is drawing large quantities of matter beyond the
|
||
event horizon (at the Schwartzschild radius). But since they have
|
||
much greater red shifts than is measured in galaxies from our
|
||
supercluster, they are assumed to have existed very early after the
|
||
big bang. Relatively few have less than an enormous red shift of z =
|
||
2, that is, with wavelengths twice as long as those generate by
|
||
similar processes on earth, and some, with red-shifts approaching z =
|
||
5, seem to come from sources that existed as long as 12 billion hears
|
||
ago. Twelve billion light years is an enormous distance in space, and
|
||
it is quite astonishing that we are receiving light from a source
|
||
that far away, because it means that the universe must be completely
|
||
transparent throughout a sphere with that radius. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However,
|
||
all these observations are precisely what would be expected on the
|
||
local big shrink theory. As we have seen, it is likely that black
|
||
holes would form early in the history of isolated galaxies because of
|
||
the accumulating gravitational forces at the centers of those
|
||
clusters of matter. Their formation early in the history of galactic
|
||
development would explain their relatively greater red-shifts,
|
||
because at that point in their development, particles would still be
|
||
quite swollen. Assuming that the sizes of the particles varies with
|
||
the wavelengths of the photons that their interactions give off, it
|
||
would mean that matter at that stage is from two to five times the
|
||
size it is on earth. The intensity of the radiation could be
|
||
completely explained by its origin in a black hole, because quasars
|
||
could be located so much closer to earth that would be required by
|
||
Hubble’s law (though those with high red-shift must be located
|
||
beyond our supercluster of galaxies). And this theory does not
|
||
require us to believe that the universe is so transparent that
|
||
photons can travel without being intercepted for 12 billion light
|
||
years in every direction from earth.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus,
|
||
quasars cannot be used as evidence against the theory of local big
|
||
shrinks. It is much more likely that they are not how the universe
|
||
looked early on after the big bang, but simply how it would look
|
||
anywhere in the universe where the local big shrink had reached the
|
||
stage at which galaxies were separate and black holes began to form
|
||
at their centers. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">But
|
||
there is still one ontological objection to the theory of local big
|
||
shrinks. Even if the universe as a whole is eternal and infinite,
|
||
this theory seems to imply that matter is coming into existence,
|
||
which contradicts the assumption of the conservation of matter
|
||
(though not the more basic ontological principle that something
|
||
cannot come from nothing). Where would the matter for the big shrink
|
||
come from?</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Again,
|
||
however, spatiomaterialism seems to have an answer — an answer that
|
||
also has to do with black holes. The one puzzling feature about black
|
||
holes is what happens to the matter that falls into them. If there is
|
||
a singularity at the center of the black hole, as seems required by
|
||
the infinite force there, the matter seems to just disappear forever
|
||
from the universe. The size of the Schwartzschild radius is the only
|
||
indication of how much matter has disappeared into it.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">However,
|
||
that loss would not be permanent, if black holes were the source of
|
||
the matter that shows up in local big shrinks. The laws of physics do
|
||
not cover conditions as extreme as those that hold for the
|
||
singularity in the center of the black hole, and thus, it is possible
|
||
that matter is transformed into an aspect of space, that is, into a
|
||
condition of space that could be the source of the matter that shows
|
||
up as local big shrinks. This condition would hold only when enough
|
||
matter had been gobbled up by black holes in the galaxies surrounding
|
||
some vast empty region. But it is possible that when space has
|
||
absorbed enough matter through those black holes, it gives birth to a
|
||
big shrink in the nearest vast region of empty space between
|
||
superclusters of galaxies. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There may
|
||
be no need, therefore, to believe that the matter that comes to exist
|
||
at the beginning of the local big shrink or the matter that comes to
|
||
exist as particles with rest mass shrink and become more massive is
|
||
coming into existence our of nothing. Instead of the “creation
|
||
field” of earlier steady-state theories, what is needed is only a
|
||
transformation field, in which matter absorbed by space from black
|
||
holes re-emerges as a local big shrinks. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">That is a
|
||
process that could go on forever. Matter would be recycled, and the
|
||
universe need never run out of room, for gravitational attraction
|
||
would always be shrinking existing superclusters of galaxies away
|
||
from some huge region of empty space or another. But it could mean
|
||
that all galaxies are ultimately destined to be consumed by black
|
||
holes. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">No
|
||
doubt, this theory of local big shrinks needs further refinement
|
||
before it will be fully reconciled with what is known about physical
|
||
processes. But it illustrates what could be true, if this is a
|
||
spatiomaterial world and physics is explained ontologically. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<br><br>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><i><b>Conclusion
|
||
about local regularities. </b></i></span></font></font><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">What
|
||
has been established by </span></font></font><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">Cosmology</span></font></font><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
and more broadly, by this ontological explanation of contemporary
|
||
physics? </span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is clearly not a necessary truth of ontological philosophy. This
|
||
spatiomaterialist ontological explanation of the basic particles of
|
||
physics and the origin of the universe is, like its explanation of
|
||
quantum mechanics, more speculative than that. It is obviously
|
||
incomplete, for there are many quantitative details to be filled in.
|
||
And it would be surprising if it is not mistaken in some ways,
|
||
especially the theory of the big shrink. What I have said above will
|
||
have to be changed, not merely expanded.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Even what
|
||
has been said about Einstein’s special and general theories of
|
||
relativity is not a necessary truth. It is also just an ontological
|
||
explanation of the truth of relativity theory. But I do claim that it
|
||
is closer to the truth that contemporary physics. That is what needed
|
||
to be shown to pay off the mortgage on spatiomaterialism and use it
|
||
as the foundation for ontological philosophy. But I do not mean to
|
||
make such a strong claim for what has been said about quantum
|
||
mechanics, the basic objects, and cosmogony. They are more
|
||
speculative, and I suspect that there still much gold to be mined in
|
||
the hills of the theory of local big shrinks. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
I believe has been show in these past two chapters, on <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Quantum
|
||
mechanics </font>and <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Cosmology,</font>
|
||
is that some such theory is probably true. It is possible to give an
|
||
ontological explanation of the truth of quantum mechanics, high
|
||
energy physics, and big bang cosmology based on spatiomaterialism.
|
||
That shows, at least, that spatiomaterialism cannot be rejected by
|
||
claiming that it contradicts what has been discovered empirically in
|
||
any of the fields of physics. But it also shows the fruitfulness of
|
||
spatiomaterialism in physics.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The widely
|
||
acknowledged problems about the theories in these fields of physics
|
||
make them a rather flimsy foundation for denying a theory of
|
||
empirical ontology. Though the big bang theory, for example, is
|
||
warmly embraced by popular culture, where mystery and faith live
|
||
comfortably with relativism, it is held with much less confidence by
|
||
physicists, if only because they are, as naturalists, more inclined
|
||
to believe that that the natural world is constituted by substances
|
||
that exist independently of themselves. Though it is not an explicit
|
||
principle of science, it simply does not make much sense to hold that
|
||
something can come from nothing. Puzzles in the other fields likewise
|
||
make scientists more skeptical than dogmatic. Few scientists would
|
||
claim that physics has already discovered the deepest truth about the
|
||
nature of what exists. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">By saying
|
||
that spatiomaterialism is fruitful in physics, I mean that it opens
|
||
up new ways of explaining the observations made by physics. But to
|
||
show that there is no reason to doubt that some ontological
|
||
explanation along the lines of those given here is also to show that
|
||
some such theory is probably true, because any such theory would
|
||
explain more of the phenomena and explains it better than physics
|
||
does at present. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
explain the power of spatiomaterialism to cast new light on physics
|
||
is the difference between ontological-cause explanations and
|
||
efficient-cause explanations with which we began in the <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Foundation
|
||
</font>of ontological philosophy. Instead of trying only to discover
|
||
the laws by which it is possible to predict and control what happens,
|
||
empirical ontology tries to discover the substances that would
|
||
explain why those laws are true. In addition to efficient causes, it
|
||
seeks ontological causes. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In these
|
||
chapters on contemporary physics, we have seen what ontology can add,
|
||
when it infers independently of empirical science to
|
||
spatiomaterialism as the best ontological explanation of the natural
|
||
world. Whereas physics relies on mathematics to represent the
|
||
quantitatively precise relationship among properties by which it can
|
||
predict the outcomes of measurements, ontological philosophy relies
|
||
on our spatial and temporal imagination to represent geometrically
|
||
the substances whose aspects are those properties. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The kind of
|
||
mathematical representations used by physics are based on Cartesian
|
||
coordinates, and that means that everything can be reduced to
|
||
algebra, that is, basically, arithmetic. As we saw in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Relations</font>,
|
||
the explanations of the truth of arithmetic and geometry are
|
||
independent on one another. One comes down to counting units, while
|
||
the other comes down to representing spatial relations spatially (or,
|
||
more accurately, as we shall see, spatio-temporally), and both can be
|
||
shown to correspond to aspects of a spatiomaterial world. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The power
|
||
of ontological philosophy to illuminate contemporary physics comes
|
||
from how spatiomaterialism adds spatial and temporal imagination to
|
||
the more abstract mathematical imagination that is the workhorse of
|
||
physics. Keep in mind that ontological-cause explanations do not
|
||
replace efficient-cause explanations, but rather explain their truth.
|
||
That provides a deeper explanation of the world, because it adds
|
||
constraints that are understood through spatial and temporal
|
||
imagination to constraints that are understood through mathematical
|
||
manipulations. The puzzles in physics arise from the limitations
|
||
inherent in its mathematical representations, mainly its attempt
|
||
describe physics with nothing but the algebraic representations
|
||
introduced by Descartes, and spatiomaterialism sheds light on
|
||
physics, because it shows how it is possible to use spatial and
|
||
temporal imagination to impose additional constraints on our beliefs
|
||
about the world. And that is what I believe has been shown in these
|
||
past four chapters. It points the way to new physics, a physics that
|
||
is ontological. Some such ontological explanation of physics is
|
||
possible.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
order to refute this argument, in other words, what is required is a
|
||
proof that no such theory is possible. It is not enough to point to
|
||
details that have not been explained. Nor even to point out ways that
|
||
it is mistaken. I would be surprised if there were no mistakes in
|
||
these theories. But goal in formulating them has not been to avoid
|
||
small errors, but to show a larger truth. I believe I have done that.
|
||
And to show that I have not, it is necessary to show that no
|
||
spatiomaterialist ontological explanation of the truth of physics can
|
||
be given. Having answered the challenge that contemporary physics
|
||
might be thought to pose for the belief that this is a spatiomaterial
|
||
world (and solved, in the process many of its unsolved problems),
|
||
that is the challenge I make to physicists.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
concludes the ontological explanation of local regularities, but that
|
||
is not all that is regular about change in a spatiomaterial world. We
|
||
have been focusing, as physics usually does, on regularities about
|
||
the motion and interaction of bits of matter that can be described
|
||
relative to those bits of matter. We have seen the role that space
|
||
plays in their explanation. But since the bits of matter all coincide
|
||
with parts of space, space plays another role in making change
|
||
regular, namely, how the wholeness of space makes the change that
|
||
occurs in whole regions of space regular. That is what will be taken
|
||
up at this point, and the conclusions to be drawn from that part of
|
||
the argument are necessary truths of ontological philosophy. What
|
||
will be said global regularizes does not depend on the truth of this
|
||
ontological explanation of the truth of physics, because except for
|
||
the implications of quantum mechanics for chemistry, it does not
|
||
depend on contemporary physics at all. However, just as in the
|
||
explanation of contemporary physics, the power of spatiomaterialism
|
||
to cast light on what has been discovered empirically by these less
|
||
general branches of science comes from how it adds a constraint to
|
||
its conclusions that is understood through spatial and temporal
|
||
imagination. And what is more, those conclusion will include an
|
||
explanation of the nature of the faculty of imagination that makes it
|
||
possible.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>G<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC18" align="right" hspace="5" width="90" height="32" border="0">lobal
|
||
regularities about change.</b></font> Global regularities are
|
||
regularities about change in a spatiomaterial world that hold of
|
||
whole regions of space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Change,
|
||
as an aspect of the substances constituting the world, involves
|
||
something more than just properties and relations. It also depends on
|
||
the temporal aspect of (the existential aspect of) the nature of
|
||
substance as substance. Having explained (in the first two chapters
|
||
of the <font face="Arial, sans-serif"><i>Necessary Truths </i></font>of
|
||
ontological philosophy about <font face="Arial, sans-serif"><i>What
|
||
is</i></font>) how properties and relations are aspects of a world
|
||
constituted by space and matter (given how they exist together), we
|
||
have already found in <font face="Arial, sans-serif"><i>Change </i></font>how
|
||
the endurance of space and matter through time as substances explains
|
||
<i>local regularities </i>about change. In the remainder of this
|
||
ontological explanation of change, we shall see how the same
|
||
ontological causes also explain <i>global regularities </i>about
|
||
change. There are four kinds of global regularities, explaining,
|
||
respectively, the truth of the first law of thermodynamics, the
|
||
second law of thermodynamics, the principles of mechanics, and two
|
||
unrecognized laws about evolutionary change. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is, besides local regularities, another kind of effect that space has
|
||
as an ontological cause. The two principles about local regularities
|
||
describe limits that the structure of space imposes on how bits of
|
||
matter change locations relative to one another and act on one
|
||
another because they coincide with parts of space. The reason that
|
||
there are also necessary principles about <i>global regularities </i>is
|
||
that the parts of space all fit together as a whole. Bits of matter
|
||
must move and interact (if they can move and interact act all) in
|
||
some part of the same space that contains all the bits of matter in
|
||
the world, and that means that the changes they undergo are all
|
||
interconnected in a regular way. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
changes that occur in one place must affect bits of matter that are
|
||
located nearby before they affect what happens farther away. That is
|
||
a consequence of the principles of local motion and local action. But
|
||
such effects do spread out in space as time passes, affecting more
|
||
and more of the world. And it is a reciprocal relationship, because
|
||
what happens elsewhere in space also has effects that spread back in
|
||
space towards it. The structure of space with which they coincide
|
||
helps determine how each event affects what happens elsewhere. But
|
||
since that structure entails a wholeness about space, the motion and
|
||
interaction of the bits of matter in any region of space must all <i>add
|
||
up in space as time passes</i>. And insofar as the bits of matter are
|
||
located in a region of space that is closed or isolated from the rest
|
||
of the world, the way that all their local changes add up over time
|
||
in the whole region may be regular. Since such regularities would
|
||
hold of whole regions of space, I will call them “global
|
||
regularities.” </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Space
|
||
is an ontological cause of regularities about change, because space
|
||
and matter together constitute the world, and change is just an
|
||
aspect that those substances have because they endure through time.
|
||
We have seen how space is an ontological cause of local regularities.
|
||
It causes global regularities in the same way. But global
|
||
regularities are different, because they depend on a further aspect
|
||
of the nature of space, the wholeness that is entailed by the
|
||
geometrical structure of space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Local
|
||
regularities about change in bits of matter are caused ontologically
|
||
by space, because the bits of matter all coincide with parts of space
|
||
and change is just an aspect of substances enduring though time. It
|
||
follows from this explanation of change, as we have seen, that two
|
||
principles hold necessarily about how bits of matter change, namely,
|
||
the principles of local motion and local action. They hold in every
|
||
possible spatiomaterial world. But space also helps cause
|
||
ontologically contingent laws about how bits of matter change, as we
|
||
have seen by showing that space and matter can explain ontologically
|
||
the truth of the basic laws of physics (classical and contemporary).</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Global
|
||
regularities about change are caused ontologically by space (and
|
||
matter) in the same way, by constituting the world in which the
|
||
regularities are aspects of substances enduring through time. They
|
||
must be caused the same way, because space and matter constitute
|
||
everything in the world and everything about the world. But global
|
||
regularities are a different aspect of the change that takes place,
|
||
because they depend specifically on the wholeness of space.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Local
|
||
regularities are aspects of change that are picked out by referring
|
||
to particular bits of matter and describing how they move relative to
|
||
one another and how they interact with one another. But global
|
||
regularities are aspects of change that are picked out by referring
|
||
to space itself and describing how all the bits of matter in some
|
||
region of space move and interact relative to it. Because of the
|
||
wholeness of space, the local changes must all “add up” in the
|
||
region of space as time passes, and what they add up to are global
|
||
regularities about change over time. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It may not
|
||
seem possible to describe motion and interaction relative to space
|
||
itself, because velocity relative to space (absolute velocity) is not
|
||
measurable. But that aspect of the relationship of bits of matter to
|
||
space is not relevant in causing global regularities. What is
|
||
relevant is that space connects what happens to all the bits of
|
||
matter so that what happens to each must affect all the others. This
|
||
comes from a property of space, namely, its wholeness, and it is not
|
||
affected by absolute motion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Physics
|
||
does not necessarily ignore regularities as a result of failing to
|
||
recognize that space is a substance. It can studies global
|
||
regularities in practice by taking some more stable material object
|
||
(such as the box containing a gas of molecules) as its frame of
|
||
reference (and arguing from what happens in such closed regions to
|
||
what would happen everywhere or anywhere in the world).</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Wholeness
|
||
is an aspect of the structure of space, because it is a consequence
|
||
of the essential natures of the parts of space, that is, how they are
|
||
related to one another geometrically in three dimensions. The
|
||
wholeness is the fact that all the parts of space fit together in a
|
||
uniquely simple way. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The aspect
|
||
of the nature of space that is relevant in causing local
|
||
regularities, both necessary and contingent, is the geometrical
|
||
structure itself, that is, the relations among parts that are
|
||
described by the various theorems of geometry (and trigonometry).
|
||
That aspect of the space that contains the bits of matter determines,
|
||
for example, where the inertial motion of a material object takes it,
|
||
how fast, and which other bits of matter it will interact with as a
|
||
result. It might be called the “local aspect of space.” </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The global
|
||
aspect of space is its wholeness, or the fact that all the parts of
|
||
space fit together in the uniform, simple way they do. It means that
|
||
parts of space in different regions fit together as parts of their
|
||
more limited wholes in the same way. And the property of wholeness is
|
||
a cause of global regularities, because it implies that the changes
|
||
that occur to the bits of matter that coincide with different parts
|
||
of space must all add up as time passes. <i>How </i>they add up in
|
||
space also depends on the local regularities and basic laws of
|
||
physics (which are explained ontologically by the nature of matter
|
||
and the local aspect of space). But <i>that </i>they all add up as
|
||
time passes depends on its wholeness. And we shall see how local
|
||
changes add up in space over time to global regularities. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Space
|
||
is, therefore, together with matter, the ontological cause of another
|
||
kind of regularity about change, besides local regularities. That
|
||
means that there is an ontological necessity about global
|
||
regularities, because ontological philosophy takes every proposition
|
||
that follows from its ontological foundation to be a necessary truth.
|
||
But unlike the two principles about local regularities, the following
|
||
global regularities (except for the simplest) have only a conditional
|
||
ontological necessity, because they also depend on matter and space
|
||
having the specific natures they have in our spatiomaterial world,
|
||
that is, on the basic laws discovered by physics. Hence, global
|
||
regularities are only <i>conditionally necessary truths</i>. Their
|
||
truth is ontologically necessary only in a spatiomaterial world like
|
||
our own. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In a
|
||
spatiomaterial world with different physical laws, there might not be
|
||
any interesting global regularities, because bits of matter do not
|
||
move and interact at all or they move and interact in different ways.
|
||
However, as we shall see, the physical laws in the actual world seem
|
||
to be of just the right kinds to make the most of the wholeness of
|
||
space in generating global regularities. Many regularities that are
|
||
not even currently recognized to hold turn of our world out to be
|
||
ontologically necessary in spatiomaterial worlds like our own. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
be sure, in order to use spatiomaterialism as an ontological
|
||
foundation for proving necessary truths about the world we had to
|
||
take out several mortgages. But they are being paid off, and in any
|
||
case, global regularities do not involve any of the extreme phenomena
|
||
on which Einsteinian relativity is based. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Two of
|
||
these mortgages have been paid off. We kept our promise to explain
|
||
the nature of consciousness in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Properties.
|
||
A</font>nd the debt that arose from the apparent incompatibility of
|
||
spatiomaterialism with Einsteinian relativity was paid off by
|
||
explaining ontologically why Einstein’s theories are true. Indeed,
|
||
we have seen that all of the basic laws of classical and contemporary
|
||
physics can be explained as regularities that hold of substances that
|
||
endure through time as a spatiomaterial world. (See <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Contingent
|
||
laws</font><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Having just
|
||
completed those explanations, it is relevant to mention, furthermore,
|
||
that far from casting doubt on spatiomaterialism, contemporary
|
||
physics provides additional empirical evidence that spatiomaterialism
|
||
is true. The recognition of space as a substance would solve several
|
||
mysteries that currently puzzle physics, such as the nature of
|
||
spacetime, curved spacetime, the relationship between gravitation and
|
||
quantum mechanics, and even the Bell Inequality entailed by quantum
|
||
mechanics. And science has further reason to accept this ontological
|
||
explanation of physics, because it offers a new approach to cosmology
|
||
which may help solve the prevailing mysteries about the origin of the
|
||
large scale structure of the universe.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In fact,
|
||
given our interpretation of contemporary physics, the existence of
|
||
space as a substance can even be shown by an inference to the best
|
||
efficient-cause explanation, because substantival space is the
|
||
efficient cause of the Lorentz distortions (which explain the
|
||
phenomena of special relativity) and its interaction with centers of
|
||
mass is the efficient cause of the acceleration of the ether (which
|
||
explains gravitation). That is, scientific realists about
|
||
contemporary physics would have to admit that space is a substance,
|
||
if they believed that nothing exists but the present moment, for the
|
||
existence of space would be known by its effects on the behavior of
|
||
matter. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Global
|
||
regularities are not very sensitive to the extreme phenomena that
|
||
divide contemporary from classical physics. They are basically
|
||
unaffected by Einsteinian relativity, as long was we can take
|
||
gravitation for granted and can assume that the universe has a large
|
||
scale structure that includes planetary systems like ours. Most
|
||
global regularities do depend on matter being of the kind found in
|
||
our spatiomaterial world and, thus, on quantum mechanics. But none of
|
||
the puzzling phenomena of quantum mechanics are particularly
|
||
relevant. Global regularities depend mainly on the wholeness of
|
||
space, that is, how, by containing all the bits of matter, space
|
||
gives the world itself (as well is regions within it) a determinate
|
||
wholeness. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
are four kinds of global regularities. Each is recognized in a way by
|
||
empirical science, as a principle, law or “mechanism” of some
|
||
kind. But since empirical science does not recognize the validity of
|
||
ontological explanations, it does not recognize space as an
|
||
ontological cause of them, and thus, it does not have an explanation
|
||
of why these regularities hold. Nor does it always fully recognize
|
||
what the regularities involve. Furthermore, although global
|
||
regularities depend on the basic laws of physics, they do not follow
|
||
from those laws alone, and thus, empirical science does not recognize
|
||
that they are necessary, even when the basic laws of physics are
|
||
assumed. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The crucial
|
||
role in explaining each of the kinds of global regularities
|
||
ontologically is played by space, and more specifically, by the
|
||
wholeness of space (or, if you will, the “global aspect” of
|
||
space). Though the wholeness of space makes the world itself whole,
|
||
it also makes every region of space whole. Thus, global regularities
|
||
can be seen in regions of space that are somehow closed or isolated
|
||
from the effects of what happens outside. Since the global
|
||
regularities are ontological effects of the wholeness of space (and
|
||
what coincides with it), they arise from inside the region. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The reason
|
||
there are four different kinds of global regularities is that
|
||
different aspects of what exists according to spatiomaterialism can
|
||
be combined with the wholeness of space to generate regularities
|
||
about the change that occurs in whole regions of space as time
|
||
passes. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><b>Spatial
|
||
global regularities. </b>The first kind of global regularity has a
|
||
single instance, namely, the conservation of matter. It will be
|
||
called the “spatial global regularity,” because it makes no
|
||
assumptions at all about the nature of matter except that it is many
|
||
different substances that each coincide with some part of space or
|
||
other. Thus, the spatial global regularity can be said to be
|
||
generated by “spatial causation,” for it is how the wholeness of
|
||
space makes any kind of matter add up over time. When we take into
|
||
account the various forms of matter that we distinguished in order to
|
||
explain the truth of the basic laws of physics ontologically, spatial
|
||
causation will also explain ontologically the truth of the first law
|
||
of thermodynamics, the principle of the conservation of energy. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><b>Material
|
||
global regularities. </b>The second kind of global regularities will
|
||
be called “material global regularities,” because in addition to
|
||
the wholeness of space, these regularities depend on matter obeying
|
||
the basic laws of physics. Alternatively, material global
|
||
regularities will be said to be generated ontologically by “material
|
||
causation,” for they are simply how the wholeness of space requires
|
||
motion and interaction to add up over time <i>when the bits of matter
|
||
obey the basic laws of physics</i>. That will explain ontologically
|
||
why the second law of thermodynamics is true.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><b>Structural
|
||
global regularities.</b> The third kind of global regularities will
|
||
be called “structural global regularities,” because in addition
|
||
to the wholeness of space and material causation, these regularities
|
||
depend on the unchanging geometrical structures of the material
|
||
objects contained in the region of space, or what will be called
|
||
“material structures” or “structural causes.” Structural
|
||
global regularities will be said to be generated ontologically by
|
||
“structural causation,” because these regularities are how the
|
||
wholeness of space requires motion and interaction to add up over
|
||
time <i>when the bits of matter include material structures </i>(or
|
||
particular structural causes). This explains ontologically the truth
|
||
of the principles of mechanics (such as the principle of the lever),
|
||
and when combined with the other ontological effects of material
|
||
causation, it will explain the sense in which machines can “do
|
||
work” and certain dispositional properties. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><b>Reproductive
|
||
global regularities.</b> The fourth kind of global regularities will
|
||
be called “reproductive global regularities,” because in addition
|
||
to the wholeness of space, material causation, and structural
|
||
causation, these regularities depend on how complex material
|
||
structures go through reproductive cycles, that is, how they go
|
||
through cycles of structural global regularities that include the
|
||
reproduction of the structural cause itself as well as
|
||
non-reproductive work. Thus, reproductive global regularities will be
|
||
said to be generated ontologically by “reproductive causation,”
|
||
because these regularities are simply how the wholeness of space
|
||
requires motion and interaction to add up over time <i>when the bits
|
||
of matter include complex material structures going through cycles of
|
||
reproduction</i>. This will explain ontologically the truth of
|
||
Darwin’s mechanism of evolution, or what might be called the
|
||
principles of evolution, which includes much more than is currently
|
||
recognized. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img 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" name="GlbRRwh" align="bottom" width="710" height="440" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
order of these kinds of global regularities is necessary, because
|
||
each adds a new ontological cause that works together with
|
||
ontological causes of all the previous global regularities. That is,
|
||
we start by assuming that the world is constituted by space and
|
||
matter (with all the bits of matter coinciding with some part of
|
||
space or other), and we consider how the wholeness of space
|
||
constrains what happens to the bits of matter. When no further
|
||
assumptions are made about the nature of matter, these assumption
|
||
entail the simplest global regularity (spatial causation). The second
|
||
global regularity adds that matter with the specific nature described
|
||
by the basic laws of physics, including the forms of matter that were
|
||
distinguished. The third adds material structures to the region. And
|
||
the fourth adds the temporal structure of complex material structures
|
||
going through reproductive cycles. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
first global regularity is entailed by the basic assumptions of
|
||
spatiomaterialism themselves, and each of the other three is the
|
||
result of adding an ontological cause, that is, assuming something
|
||
further about the nature of what coincides with space in the region:
|
||
about the specific nature of matter, about its spatial structure, and
|
||
about its temporal structure. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus,
|
||
considering the ontological causes added to the basic assumptions of
|
||
spatiomaterialism, material global regularities may be said to be due
|
||
to “material causation,” structural global regularities may be
|
||
said to be due to “structuro-material causation,” and
|
||
reproductive global regularities may be said to be a result of
|
||
“temporo-structuro-material causation.” Those names bring out the
|
||
necessary order of the global regularities in a spatiomaterial world.
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the following four sections, these kinds of global regularities will
|
||
be shown to follow from spatiomaterialism and the kind of matter that
|
||
explains the truth of classical and contemporary physics
|
||
ontologically. If nature had a different essential nature, some of
|
||
the global regularities might not hold. (For example, there would be
|
||
no structural causes unless matter could make up material objects
|
||
with geometrical structures that do not change as they move and
|
||
interact.) But given that matter takes the various forms we used to
|
||
explain the basic laws of physics, the global regularities are simply
|
||
how the wholeness of space makes the change in what coincides with
|
||
space add up as time passes. The ontological effect of spatial
|
||
causation includes the first law of thermodynamics, or the principle
|
||
of the conservation of energy. When material causation is added to
|
||
spatial causation, the ontological effect is the second law of
|
||
thermodynamics, or the law of entropy. When structural causation is
|
||
combined with spatial and material causation, we have an explanation
|
||
of how machines do work. Finally, when reproductive causation is
|
||
added to spatial, material and structural causation, the ontological
|
||
effect is evolutionary change. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
ontological explanation of evolution as a global regularity has, as
|
||
we shall see, implications about what is to be found in nature that
|
||
goes far beyond what is recognized by evolutionary biology and
|
||
contemporary Darwinists. But it depends on all the other global
|
||
regularities, and so we will begin with the simplest and work our way
|
||
up.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>S<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADcAAAAWCAMAAABT9fTnAAAAYFBMVEX////38PDv4ODn0NDjx5vfwMDWu5LXsLDMmZnHkJC/gIC3cHCvYGCmUFCeQECZMzNVSzqOICCGEBA5MicrJR1+AAAcGRMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABNoYGmAAAAzElEQVR4nOXP2w6DIAwGYIVVjsLK1vn+b7qC7pAJO5glu1gTBeH/kHa7Vh0mrn1rt2u64TRNx+GJ6zYVO/q8/sglbx3WU+E6i2blpA1erAhkA7cT4NGVlcSP9ZAP9QCWCIXmd55oULHmUm9CKksjKceJRMpTko5/yAmMFEXNEVroFZVQ3uVPYZd75oTX0FVd6TFcHIqR7J0zGqnqIgeSwDnkKEii3BqMs+MRqw6VAFlCIBU3qiUodqOE4qIA074nLc28rC+6t+onbkudAS38RuqHcvEIAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="OdkC19" align="right" hspace="5" width="55" height="22" border="0">patial
|
||
global regularities. </b></font>The basic spatial global regularity
|
||
is that matter is conserved. The total quantity of matter in any
|
||
closed or isolated region of space does not change. But under certain
|
||
circumstances, it entails a less general spatial global regularity,
|
||
the conservation of energy.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000">“<font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">Spatial
|
||
global regularity” is an appropriate name, because nothing is
|
||
assumed about the nature of matter except what is entailed by
|
||
spatiomaterialism (besides space, the existence of many particular
|
||
substances, each coinciding with some part of space or other.) This
|
||
global regularity is the purest ontological effect of the wholeness
|
||
of space.</span></font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
regularities caused ontologically by space are not just global. The
|
||
structure of space also helps cause necessary principles and
|
||
contingent laws about local regularities (or the basic laws of
|
||
physics, classical and contemporary). Since bits of matter have
|
||
spatial relations to one another because they coincide with parts of
|
||
space, the way those spatial relations change as a result of motion
|
||
is partly determined by the structure of space. This might be called
|
||
the local aspect of space.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The global
|
||
aspect of space, on the other hand, is its wholeness, or the fact
|
||
that all the parts of space fit together as a single system of
|
||
locations that are all related to one another geometrically. The
|
||
wholeness of space is an ontological cause of regularities about
|
||
change in entire regions of space, because it requires that all the
|
||
local changes that occur in any region fit together in space as time
|
||
passes. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">When
|
||
combined with the assumption that matter has a nature that makes the
|
||
basic laws of physics true, the spatial global regularity (that
|
||
matter is conserved in a closed or isolated system) entails that
|
||
energy is conserved in any closed system. That is an ontological
|
||
explanation of the first law of thermodynamics in a spatiomaterial
|
||
world like ours. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Conservation
|
||
principles are called “principles”, because they are supposed to
|
||
be too basic to be explained by anything else. But conservation
|
||
principles can be explained ontologically, though in the case of the
|
||
conservation of matter, the global regularity is so obvious that it
|
||
may seem to be trivial. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
conservation of matter.</span></font></font></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">Spatiomaterialism
|
||
holds that matter and space are substances enduring through time.
|
||
Since matter is a substance, it neither comes into existence nor goes
|
||
out of existence over time. That is how matter itself is an
|
||
ontological cause of the conservation of matter. The total quantity
|
||
of matter cannot change, because matter is a substance. But space is
|
||
also a ontological cause of this regularity, because matter is
|
||
contained by space and it is by coinciding with parts of space that
|
||
bits of matter have spatial relations to one another. Space is what
|
||
gives particular substances the relationship that makes it possible
|
||
for them to add up, that is, to be added together and have a total,
|
||
as we saw in </span></font></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/LoOtjR.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US"><u>Relations</u></span></font></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
where the truth of mathematics was explained ontologically. </span></font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
relevance of space as a cause of conservation principles is implicit
|
||
in the way they are formulated. They hold that some quantity does not
|
||
change in closed or isolated regions of space. But this reference to
|
||
a region of space indicates a further ontological effect of space.
|
||
The reason the total quantity of matter does not change in any closed
|
||
or isolated region of space is that that is how change of any kind
|
||
adds up in space as time passes when the bits of matter conform to
|
||
the principle of local motion.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
principle of local motion holds that the only way that bits of matter
|
||
can change location is by motion, and since it was derived from
|
||
spatiomaterialism, it is an ontologically necessary principle. But if
|
||
it holds of all possible change, then the total quantity of matter in
|
||
a closed region of space cannot change, because to be closed or
|
||
isolated means that there is a two-dimensional surface surrounding
|
||
the matter across which no matter is moving That is how bits of
|
||
matter must “add up” over time because they coincide with space
|
||
as a substance enduring through time. “Adding up” is an
|
||
ontological consequence of the wholeness of the space that contains
|
||
them. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Change in
|
||
bits of matter adds up in space in the same way that the bits of
|
||
matter themselves add up in space, except that change takes their
|
||
endurance through time into consideration. The bits of matter endure
|
||
though time, but since whatever happens, they cannot change location
|
||
except by motion, the total matter cannot change in any closed or
|
||
isolated region of space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
it may be obvious and simple, the lack of change in the total
|
||
quantity of matter in a closed region of space is a regularity about
|
||
change over time. It is a global regularity, because it has to do
|
||
with the properties of whole regions of space. The regularity is not
|
||
just what is assumed by postulating matter as a substance, but rather
|
||
is explained ontologically by spatiomaterialism, because it is an
|
||
aspect of the world enduring through time that depends on both space
|
||
and matter and how they exist together as a world. Thus, the
|
||
conservation of matter is an ontologically necessary regularity. If
|
||
the total matter in a closed or isolated region did change,
|
||
spatiomaterialism would be false. Matter is conserved, therefore, in
|
||
every possible spatiomaterial world. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">The
|
||
conservation of energy.</font> The first law of thermodynamics is the
|
||
principle of the conservation of energy. It is a consequence of this
|
||
spatial global regularity, if we take into account the forms of
|
||
matter we have assumed in order to explain the basic laws of
|
||
classical physics ontologically. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
implication will hardly be a surprise, since we used the principle of
|
||
the conservation of mass and energy as a guide to ensure the
|
||
completeness of our inventory of the forms of matter that had to be
|
||
postulated in order to explain the basic laws of classical physics.
|
||
But since that was just a working hypothesis for distinguishing the
|
||
various forms of matter, it is relevant, now that we have shown that
|
||
the forms of matter we assumed can indeed explain the truth of the
|
||
basic laws of physics, to consider how those forms of matter make the
|
||
principle of the conservation of energy true. The ontological
|
||
explanation is not as simple as it may seem.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
may seem that the principle of the conservation of energy is an
|
||
immediate consequence of the conservation of matter, because it is
|
||
usually assumed that mass and energy are conserved separately as long
|
||
as no nuclear reactions, converting rest mass to energy, occur in the
|
||
region. The total quantity of matter that exists as energy in the
|
||
region cannot change, because when the total rest mass does not
|
||
change, matter does not exist in any other forms and matter does not
|
||
come into existence or go out of existence. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">However,
|
||
the principle of the conservation of energy is not so simple
|
||
ontologically, because given our ontological explanation of the
|
||
nature of potential energy, there <i>is </i>a conversion between rest
|
||
mass and kinetic energy (or other forms of actual energy) whenever
|
||
potential energy is being consumed or created, which happens in most
|
||
ordinary physical processes.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Material
|
||
objects exert forces that can accelerate material objects, and our
|
||
theory is that those forces are a form of matter that helps make up
|
||
the material objects and whose quantity is counted in their rest
|
||
masses. When potential energy has given the objects kinetic energy,
|
||
for example, the objects have not only changed their relative
|
||
positions, but the force field itself has changed. The change in the
|
||
force field means that less matter is required to constitute it, and
|
||
that is the source of the kinetic energy, which on our theory is also
|
||
a form of matter. Thus, it is a conversion of some of the matter
|
||
counted as rest mass into matter that is counted as kinetic energy.
|
||
The opposite conversion occurs when kinetic energy becomes potential
|
||
energy, and the same principle holds for conversions between
|
||
potential energy and photons (and other forms of matter). Thus, the
|
||
conversion between potential energy and kinetic energy does not
|
||
violate the principle of the conservation of <i>mass and energy</i>. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Even
|
||
though, in these processes, matter is being converted between a form
|
||
that is counted as rest mass and a form that is counted as kinetic
|
||
energy, the total quantity of energy does not change. The reason is
|
||
that potential energy is counted as zero when it is maximum and that
|
||
any potential energy that is consumed as kinetic energy (or photons)
|
||
is counted as a bit negative energy in the region. There can be no
|
||
such thing as negative matter, since matter is a substance. But
|
||
counting potential energy as negative energy keeps the energy
|
||
accounts balanced. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Negative
|
||
potential energy is explained ontologically as a decrease in the rest
|
||
masses of the material objects. The “rest mass” of a material
|
||
object is defined, according to our ontological explanation of
|
||
physics, as its mass when it is at rest in absolute space and the
|
||
only force field in its neighborhood is the one that it imposes by
|
||
itself (that is, separate from other material objects). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thus, when
|
||
it is (falsely) assumed that the rest masses of the objects involved
|
||
are unchanged, counting potential energy as negative energy keeps the
|
||
total quantity of mass and energy the same. The actual loss of mass
|
||
from the total quantity of rest mass in the region is so small
|
||
(according to Einstein’s equation, <i>E = mc</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>)
|
||
that the change in potential energy is not easily detected as a
|
||
change in rest mass. Thus, counting potential energy as a negative
|
||
quantity makes it seem that energy is conserved separately from rest
|
||
mass in these processes. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But in
|
||
fact, rest mass is not conserved. An object’s mass changes as its
|
||
potential energy is actualized. Only the total of mass and energy are
|
||
conserved even in most ordinary processes (where an object’s mass
|
||
apart from its kinetic matter is accurately determined by subtracting
|
||
the potential energy it has given up from its rest mass). </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Thus,
|
||
whereas the conservation of matter is an ontologically necessary
|
||
global regularity, the conservation of energy is ontologically
|
||
necessary only on the condition that matter has a nature that makes
|
||
the basic laws of physics true, and thus, this shows it to be
|
||
ontologically necessary only in spatiomaterial worlds like our own.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>M<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAADgAAAAWCAMAAACi/q9qAAAAYFBMVEX////38PDv4ODn0NDjx5vfwMDWu5LXsLDMmZnHkJC/gIC3cHCxZE6vYGCwY02mUFCeQECZMzNVSzqOICCGEBA5Mid+AAArJR0cGRMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABgiJqlAAAAz0lEQVR4nO2S0Q7CIAxFcbVuK+I6wer+/0ct22S4yBL3ZuJ9IKSnB0qCOZZyGzTXIjZFcnoMw/20JZ7NrkRRvs8PioHDvJTifdq2/SReVGRDImQ4QeSV6NwbSyJCEIwVh6hn+KrRNTRIOgR58sKJrURrnY0VHbd2EsDqHlha7TS1ikQvthIDQIgVT1jRBPuKqEFtivNFMWOLGIlWfNWNPePlwMz9IuYsE6fhGUTi87DTJx7UysTEPonSANYKO9BKDwiUjTqzXNz1Af7iprgnT7zXSlPiJUYwAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" name="OdkC20" align="right" hspace="5" width="56" height="22" border="0">aterial
|
||
Global Regularities. </b></font>The second law of thermodynamics,
|
||
like the first, is stated as a regularity about the change in a total
|
||
quantity that holds of closed region of space: the total entropy
|
||
cannot decrease, though it may increase and usually does until it is
|
||
maximum. It is also possible to explain the second law of
|
||
thermodynamics ontologically, given that matter obeys the basic laws
|
||
of physics. Once again, it an ontological effect that space has on
|
||
the world because space, like matter, is a substance enduring through
|
||
time and it contains all the bits of matter. Unlike the explanation
|
||
of the conservation of matter, however, the explanation of the law of
|
||
entropy depends not only on the principle of local motion, but also
|
||
on matter having the more specific nature described by the laws of
|
||
physics, whose truth was explained in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Contingent
|
||
laws</font>. The reason is that there are geometrical aspects about
|
||
the various forms of matter involved, and thus, not only does the
|
||
wholeness of space require that all their local changes add up over
|
||
time, but the structure of space requires the motion and interaction
|
||
of the bits of matter to add up in a certain way geometrically.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
first and second laws of thermodynamics.</span></font></font><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
spatial and material global regularities made their appearance in
|
||
physics as the first and second laws of thermodynamics. These laws
|
||
were originally formulated to describe certain phenomena that were
|
||
discovered in the development of steam engines. Physicists knew that
|
||
steam engines could extract mechanical work from heat energy, but
|
||
when they recognized that the total energy in a closed system does
|
||
not change (the first law of thermodynamics), they had to admit that
|
||
only some of the energy in such a system could be used to do
|
||
mechanical work, for a closed system could change in ways that make
|
||
it unable to do work. They knew that what makes it possible to
|
||
extract mechanical work from the energy contained in such a system is
|
||
a flow of heat from high temperature regions to regions with a lower
|
||
temperature. The energy that is available to do work was called “free
|
||
energy” (or “usable mechanical energy”). Thus, they recognized
|
||
that, although the total energy in a closed system does not change,
|
||
the free energy does. The free energy can decline and usually does. A
|
||
quantity was introduced as a measure of the portion of the total
|
||
energy in the system that could </span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><i>not
|
||
</i></span></font></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">be
|
||
used to do mechanical work. They called it “entropy”. Thus, in
|
||
these terms, the second law of thermodynamics holds that the entropy
|
||
in any closed system never decreases. It may increase, and usually
|
||
does, stopping only when it becomes maximum. But it never decreases.
|
||
What decreases as entropy increases is free energy. The notion that
|
||
there is a form of energy that declines, even though energy is
|
||
conserved, was puzzling. And though it was discovered by thinking
|
||
about steam engines, the second law of thermodynamics was eventually
|
||
recognized to hold for systems of all kinds. The law of entropy
|
||
increase is universally true, holding everywhere (except possibly for
|
||
the origin of the universe in a big bang or the alternative to the
|
||
big bang to be proposed in </span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/Lo/LoOtkCaLeCosD.htm" target="Lo"><font color="#000000"><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Cosmology</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">).
|
||
</span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The free
|
||
energy available in a system has something to do with “order”,
|
||
but it has never been very clear what order is in general or how it
|
||
makes energy free.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote33anc" href="#sdendnote33sym"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a></sup>
|
||
In the case of steam engines and heat engines generally it is clear
|
||
what the relevant order is. It comes down to the temperature
|
||
differences between parts of a system and the quantities of heat each
|
||
contains, for the flow of heat between them is what makes it possible
|
||
to extract mechanical energy. But when the law of entropy is
|
||
generalized to cover systems of all kinds, it is less clear what the
|
||
nature of the order is. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; background: #cccccc; border-top: 6.75pt double #000000; border-bottom: 6.75pt double #808080; border-left: 6.75pt double #000000; border-right: 6.75pt double #808080; padding: 0.28cm 0.46cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It is,
|
||
however, possible to explain order of all kinds in an intuitively
|
||
clear way, if we take the wholeness of space into account as an
|
||
ontological cause of global regularities, along with matter as
|
||
contained by space. Energy is, in our terms, a form of matter, the
|
||
same stuff that accounts for the rest mass of material objects,
|
||
though there are several, basically different forms of energy—kinetic
|
||
energy and the energy due to forces, both potential and actual
|
||
(especially, photons). What makes energy free is, as we shall see, a
|
||
geometrical aspect of these forms of matter and how they are
|
||
contained in a region of space, for there are regularities about how
|
||
such geometrical properties change over time. Showing that these
|
||
global regularities follow from spatiomaterialism is, therefore, an
|
||
ontological explanation of why the first and second laws of
|
||
thermodynamics are true. It will require not only the material global
|
||
regularities, but also the structural global regularities (to be
|
||
discussed next). However, not only will that prove their ontological
|
||
necessity, but it will also make clear what these regularities are
|
||
all about in their full generality, including the way in which free
|
||
energy depends on order.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Two
|
||
global regularities are involved in making the second law of
|
||
thermodynamics true according to this ontological explanation. The
|
||
first is <i>the tendency of potential energy to become kinetic energy
|
||
or photons </i>(or the tendency toward kinetic energy), and the other
|
||
is <i>the tendency of dynamic processes to become random </i>(or the
|
||
tendency toward randomness). Both are ways in which the specific
|
||
nature of matter works together with space as an ontological cause to
|
||
constitute a global regularity. But they work together, because the
|
||
first is usually the source of the situations in which the second
|
||
global regularity is exhibited. Let us consider each in turn and then
|
||
see how they are combined.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="center" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
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" name="GlbRM" align="bottom" width="710" height="288" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC21" align="right" hspace="5" width="77" height="29" border="0">he
|
||
tendency toward kinetic energy. </font>The first global regularity
|
||
included in the second law of thermodynamics is the <i>tendency of
|
||
potential energy to become kinetic energy (and photons)</i>. The very
|
||
name, “potential” energy, suggests this tendency, because
|
||
potential energy is <i>actualized </i>by becoming kinetic energy
|
||
(and/or photons). Though it is also possible for kinetic energy to
|
||
become potential energy, the tendency is <i>toward </i>kinetic
|
||
energy, because potential energy that has become actualized is less
|
||
likely to restore itself. In order to see why, we need only contrast
|
||
the natures of potential energy and kinetic energy. The same kind of
|
||
contrast also shows that potential energy tends to be lost to other
|
||
kinds of energy, such as photons, but to keep it simple, let us focus
|
||
on kinetic energy for now. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">When
|
||
potential energy becomes kinetic energy, the kinetic energy comes
|
||
from the forces that material objects exert on one another. According
|
||
to our ontological explanation of the basic laws of physics,
|
||
potential energy is actually a form of matter that constitutes the
|
||
force fields themselves (and whose quantity is already counted in the
|
||
rest masses of the objects exerting the forces). A force is called a
|
||
field because its (potential) effects are distributed in the space
|
||
around the object imposing the force, with a geometrical structure
|
||
centered on the location of the object. That force field is explained
|
||
ontologically by a form of matter that coincides with all those parts
|
||
of space at once, and thus, the matter has a geometrical structure.
|
||
The matter making up the force is spread out continuously in space,
|
||
varying with the strength of the force it exerts. That geometrical
|
||
structure means that there is a wholeness about the energy when is
|
||
still potential, because each part contributes to the total potential
|
||
energy (and, thus, to the total rest mass of the material object
|
||
exerting the force) by having a definite location relative to every
|
||
other part. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Kinetic
|
||
energy, by contrast, is a form of matter that is not only attached to
|
||
the material object, but also located at its center of mass. Kinetic
|
||
matter, as we are calling it, has a location that enables it to
|
||
connect the material object to space in a way that makes the object
|
||
move across space in some direction at a certain speed. But that
|
||
means that kinetic energy (or kinetic matter) lacks any inherent
|
||
geometrical structure, except for the location of the object and its
|
||
direction in the region where it exists. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Given
|
||
that potential energy has an inherent geometrical structure and that
|
||
kinetic energy does not, we can see why there is a tendency of
|
||
potential energy to become kinetic energy in the motion and
|
||
interaction of material objects by considering what is involved in
|
||
the conversion between them. In order to convert potential energy
|
||
into kinetic energy, more than one material object must be involved,
|
||
because kinetic energy is actualized as material objects are
|
||
accelerated by the forces they exert on one another. Such
|
||
acceleration can occur only when the objects are spatially related so
|
||
that the forces they exert on one another are able to accelerate
|
||
them, and when they are a source of much energy, they are rather
|
||
special. Objects at rest, for example, can acquire kinetic energy
|
||
from attractive forces only when they are separated by a distance
|
||
that can be closed by their acceleration (and they can acquire
|
||
kinetic energy from repulsive forces only when they are located near
|
||
one another and can move away). When objects are accelerated,
|
||
however, the objects change their locations in space, and that
|
||
changes the capacity of the force to accelerate them, because it
|
||
decreases the special kind of spatial relationship needed to
|
||
accelerate them. The potential energy has been consumed, and in its
|
||
place the objects have some kinetic energy. The kinetic energy
|
||
actually comes from the matter constituting the force field, and that
|
||
is possible because the force field itself has changed in a way that
|
||
requires less matter to constitute it. Thus, what has happened is
|
||
that some of the matter that had an inherent geometrical structure
|
||
has been extracted and has become matter that is located with the
|
||
objects’ centers of mass. The matter’s loss of inherent
|
||
geometrical structure is what is responsible for the temporally
|
||
asymmetric tendency, for that makes it a form of matter that can be
|
||
divided up among many other material objects as they interact. In
|
||
particular, according to Newton’s laws of motion, when an object
|
||
with high kinetic energy interacts slower moving objects, some of its
|
||
kinetic energy is carried away by the other objects, being divided up
|
||
among them.. It is not very likely that other objects will ever move
|
||
in just the right ways to restore the special spatial relation that
|
||
accelerated the object in the first place. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">For
|
||
example, if an object falls toward a planet because of the
|
||
gravitational forces they exert on one another, it loses its
|
||
potential energy as it approaches the planet and it gains kinetic
|
||
energy. But as it collides with other material objects, either on its
|
||
way down or when it runs into the earth, it gives up kinetic energy,
|
||
and though it may rebound, much of its kinetic energy will be lost to
|
||
other objects (and to overcoming the forces that may be involved in
|
||
its fragmentation or deformation). The system will never restore the
|
||
object’s potential energy. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
be sure, the conversion can work the opposite way. When objects
|
||
exerting forces on one another have accelerated one another and lost
|
||
potential energy, they have also acquired kinetic energy, and that
|
||
can restore potential energy. Objects with kinetic energy restore
|
||
potential energy when their retreat from one another is slowed by
|
||
attractive forces (and when their approach to one another is slowed
|
||
by repulsive forces). Indeed, a system involving only two material
|
||
objects may simply go on converting energy between kinetic and
|
||
potential forms indefinitely, such as a planet in an elliptical orbit
|
||
around its star. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
reason there is a tendency toward kinetic energy is that other
|
||
material objects are usually involved. According to Newton’s laws
|
||
of motion, when objects with kinetic energy interact with one
|
||
another, they exchange kinetic energy in a way that tends to equalize
|
||
the kinetic energy among them. Thus, objects with unusually large
|
||
amounts of kinetic energy see their kinetic energy divided up into
|
||
smaller bits of kinetic energy that subsequently move around
|
||
separately from one another. Kinetic energy is no longer moving
|
||
objects in the right locations in the right directions at the right
|
||
times to restore the unusually large potential energy from which it
|
||
derived. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">For
|
||
example, even in a pendulum, which continually converts potential
|
||
energy to kinetic energy and back again as it rises and falls in the
|
||
gravitational field, this tendency to kinetic energy cannot be
|
||
avoided. The bob also loses kinetic energy as it collides with
|
||
particles of air and as it stretches and relaxes its tether, and it
|
||
never restores all the potential energy and eventually comes to a
|
||
stop. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">There are,
|
||
of course, processes in which kinetic energy and potential energy are
|
||
continually being converted into one another, such as those involved
|
||
in elastic collisions or a plasma of charged particles, but the
|
||
potential energy in those processes is not a source of free energy,
|
||
but just part of a random interaction that is the subject of the
|
||
other global regularity, as we shall see. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
wholeness of the space containing the objects and their two forms of
|
||
energy is what requires all the motion and interaction of bits of
|
||
matter in the region to add up over time. That is how space causes
|
||
all the global regularities. But in the case of the tendency to
|
||
kinetic energy, space plays an additional role, which depends on its
|
||
geometrical structure. There is a geometrical structure inherent in
|
||
potential energy, and since it is superimposed on the uniform
|
||
structure of space, there is a geometrical aspect to how the motion
|
||
and interaction of the material objects adds up over time. A region
|
||
with a large amount of potential energy must have a rather special
|
||
geometrical structure, because potential energy exists in the forces
|
||
that objects exert and it can be converted to kinetic energy only
|
||
when objects have kinds of relative locations in the force fields
|
||
they impose that can accelerate them. There is a tendency to kinetic
|
||
energy, because when it becomes kinetic energy, is a form of matter
|
||
that is located with the center of the material object’s rest mass,
|
||
thereby losing that kind of its geometrical structure inherent in
|
||
potential energy. It moves across space with the material object and
|
||
can be transferred to other objects by collisions, which tends, as we
|
||
shall see, toward randomness. Thus, the geometrical structure
|
||
inherent in potential energy tends to be erased from the region. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
other words, when potential energy becomes kinetic, matter that did
|
||
exist as part of the whole force field surrounding the material
|
||
objects comes to be kinetic matter located with their centers of
|
||
mass, and that makes it possible for the matter to be divided up
|
||
further by collisions with other material objects. Once the matter is
|
||
divided up, it is unlikely that the objects will have just the right
|
||
speeds in the right directions at just the right locations and just
|
||
the right times to put the objects back in the same spatial relation
|
||
that gave them potential energy in the first place. Indeed, it is
|
||
unlikely they will put any object in any similar significant source
|
||
of potential energy, for that would require assembling separate bits
|
||
of matter as a form of matter (a force being exerted) whose inherent
|
||
geometrical structure is testimony to its unity as a single bit of
|
||
matter. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
examples used here are based on gravitation,<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote34anc" href="#sdendnote34sym"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a></sup>
|
||
but it should be noted that the same holds for electromagnetism and
|
||
short range forces. When protons are combined randomly with
|
||
electrons, their long-range attractive forces bind them together as
|
||
hydrogen atoms, and though the potential energy may take the form of
|
||
photons, instead of or as well as kinetic energy, the photons also
|
||
lose their energy as they are scattered by other objects with
|
||
electric charges and the geometrical structure inherent in potential
|
||
energy is still broken up into many smaller bits. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Much the
|
||
same happens in the case of short-range forces, though the spatial
|
||
relations required to actualize potential energy are different. In
|
||
nuclear fusion reactions, for example, nuclei must collide with
|
||
enough energy to overcome an initial repulsion by the strong force,
|
||
for otherwise the short-range attractive force does not reach far
|
||
enough to bind them together. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Likewise,
|
||
atoms (or groups of atoms) that exert attractive forces on one
|
||
another may be separated too far by the molecular structures of which
|
||
they are parts for their forces binds them together, until the local
|
||
temperature is high enough for collisions to put them momentarily
|
||
within the effective range. This is what happens when a match is used
|
||
to start combustion. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Likewise in
|
||
fission reactions, the potential energy of repulsion between clusters
|
||
of positive charges in a heavy nucleus becomes kinetic when they fly
|
||
apart, but first the nucleus must be made unstable by the absorption
|
||
of a neutron. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
these cases the geometrical structure inherent in potential energy is
|
||
more internal to the material objects, but that structure is still
|
||
part of the geometrical structure of matter in the region, for there
|
||
must be conditions in the region that will release it.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">T<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAEYAAAAdCAMAAAAgueqCAAAAwFBMVEX////29vb38PDu7u7l5eXv4ODi4uLn0NDV1dXMzMzfwMDdu5G9vb3XsLCwsLDMmZmlpaXKlXTHkJDHlHPBkHDAjG25iWu9gICugWW3cHCgd12vYGCSbFSFY02mUFB8XEh1V0ScQEBwVEFuUkCZMzOOICCGICCGEBBAHBZ7AABzAABmAAA1Ew5dAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABosJqVAAABx0lEQVR4nN2VYXPTMAyGw0bJEDNmgSGMwUzDnqYG9v9/HlLi5pIUstu1n9C1qvNGfuxYUtq8u9m0219PT4+32zFqzcfmLPbplZxuTfP58iyYL2/258B8vdqfzmmab2/7PZPZ+l63NTGvMN+v+/4BcYe4joQtzPJm0/x43/f6WCZ3AFmihzbpuAU4UiLpL7Jt5gI6yQDdAXP34XfFpCDsBKMwSEJbcK0wt1Jg2g2wYKqY+wmDrdGRLKb6laJbojoRxi9hxfycMCGaMk4KafBzZRgXaGWOifEIw9B1vk7iHXpYKjoOOgg1jXoRHQIvMUMCLemFh2wycV4qQuZarsmxq3IokorZSu3Csv+r/FLMP2wLw+UsGDqq6+cwez3HXDhopUkpIbBBrD1KVaJEFblE1C1yDYg8uhkGHVJJ5KMgpOAlOepQy4SC1p8n70ykXUxaN5CSk9hRyINbYMhWcS3WMnG2Uq1CVWhojtFn0E7WoiEe3RrjA9MBMxb61AdzDPnhrUK4S6NbYVwWnKZGG2dnnxWG2yJJctHjGtwcE/URs3N2ltneWOzBuiiBZ1NyNHH0GqcNSw6QB/dMwl9g/y3m+ur1xan/vX8A+k4EURxqDLIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=" name="OdkC22" align="right" hspace="5" width="70" height="29" border="0">he
|
||
tendency toward randomness. </font>What tends to become random is the
|
||
motion and interaction of bits of matter in a closed or isolated
|
||
region, or what may also be called “dynamic processes.” In the
|
||
dynamic processes used to think about this phenomenon, material
|
||
objects are assumed to have repulsive forces by which elastic
|
||
collisions keep them from occupying the same places at the same time.
|
||
</font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In elastic
|
||
collisions, material objects keep moving and interacting, because no
|
||
kinetic energy is lost or absorbed by their parts when they interact.
|
||
Force fields and conversions to potential energy are actually
|
||
involved in these interactions, but they can be ignored here, because
|
||
there is no net change and we want to consider what happens to their
|
||
kinetic energy and other properties of the kinetic matter attached to
|
||
material objects.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
traditional model for the tendency to randomness is the motion and
|
||
collisions of billiard balls in a box. Once again, it is being
|
||
contained by space that requires their motion and interaction to add
|
||
up over time, and all that is needed to see why there is a tendency
|
||
to randomness is to consider <i>how </i>motion and interaction in
|
||
accordance with Newton’s laws of motion add up in space over time.
|
||
There is, once again, a geometrical structure about the region that
|
||
gets wiped out.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
a spatiomaterial world, everything happens by the motion and
|
||
interaction of bits of matter, and in this case, it is extremely
|
||
simple, because the bits of matter are all material objects with rest
|
||
mass and kinetic energy (that is, the kinetic matter attached to
|
||
material objects). There is no geometrical structure about the
|
||
material objects in the region except their locations, speeds and
|
||
direction of motion. These three properties are the initial
|
||
conditions that would have to be described along with Newton’s laws
|
||
of nature, according to the D-N model of explanation, in order to
|
||
predict and explain what happens. They are all part of the efficient
|
||
cause that determines what happens in the region. But it is not
|
||
necessary, or even relevant, to derive mathematically what happens in
|
||
detail in particular cases. If we consider the material objects
|
||
relative to the space that contains them, we can see why their motion
|
||
and interaction becomes randomized before long, if they aren’t
|
||
already, because it is due to a geometrical aspect that we can
|
||
understand, when we see them against the background of space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
wholeness of space is what requires the motion and interaction of the
|
||
bits of matter located in the region to add up as time passes, but
|
||
the structure of the space within the region is what determines how
|
||
the local changes add up. The objects have locations, speeds and
|
||
directions at any moment that determine a geometrical structure
|
||
relative to space, and when they move and interact according to
|
||
Newton’s laws of motion, local changes add up in space over time in
|
||
a way that erases that geometrical structure by evening out the
|
||
spatial distribution of all three of the kinds of efficient causes
|
||
that are relevant.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
tendency can be seen in each of the kinds of relevant efficient
|
||
causes. That is, (1) the rest masses of material objects become
|
||
spread out evenly throughout the region of space, (2) their kinetic
|
||
energies become evenly distributed in space, and (3) their directions
|
||
of momentum also tend toward an even spatial distribution. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.18cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">(1)
|
||
If there are more material objects moving and interacting in one part
|
||
of the region of space than in another, as when a gas of molecules is
|
||
released in a vacuum, they will spread themselves out, because, other
|
||
things being equal, objects at any boundary between highly and lowly
|
||
populated regions are more likely to be turned back by collisions on
|
||
one side than on the other. Hence, material objects will tend to move
|
||
toward the less populated region until they are all evenly
|
||
distributed in space. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">(The
|
||
diffusion of the molecules of one gas or liquid that is released into
|
||
another works similarly, because when the objects colliding have
|
||
different rest masses, the directions of the motion of less massive
|
||
objects tend to change more, until the more massive objects are
|
||
evenly distributed among them. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">(2)
|
||
Randomness may still not prevail, however, when rest masses are
|
||
evenly distributed in space, because objects in some areas may be
|
||
moving faster than those in other areas, for example, when there are
|
||
hot spots or cold spots in the region. However, such spatial
|
||
unevenness in their kinetic energy is also evened out, because
|
||
elastic collisions of slow-moving with fast-moving rest masses tend
|
||
to speed up the former and slow down the latter. That is the only
|
||
what that both kinetic energy and momentum can be conserved. Kinetic
|
||
energy tends to be divided up among the colliding objects. Thus, at
|
||
the boundary between regions of different temperature, symmetrical
|
||
elastic collisions will be so located and oriented in space that
|
||
kinetic energy is communicated to the less energetic regions (that
|
||
is, by conduction of heat). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">(3)
|
||
Motion and interaction may still not be random, even when rest masses
|
||
and their kinetic energies are distributed evenly in space, because
|
||
their speeds may be mostly in the same direction, as in a wind. But
|
||
any such unevenness in the distribution of direction of motion among
|
||
the objects also tends to be evened out, because when kinetic
|
||
energies are evenly distributed within and outside the wind (their
|
||
temperatures are the same), the wind tends to be invaded by objects
|
||
moving perpendicularly to it. Objects making up the wind have more of
|
||
their kinetic energy tied up in moving in the direction of the wind
|
||
than objects outside the wind, and thus, objects approaching the wind
|
||
perpendicularly are less likely to be turned back by collisions than
|
||
those traveling in other directions (that is, the pressure exerted
|
||
sideways by molecules of the wind will be less than elsewhere in the
|
||
region, called the Bernoulli effect). As molecules invade the wind,
|
||
they collide with molecules making up the wind, which tends to make
|
||
their directions more perpendicular to the wind, and such reactions
|
||
are more likely until the directions of momentum of all the objects
|
||
in the region are evenly distributed.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
result is that the rest masses of the objects, their kinetic
|
||
energies, and their directions of motion all tend to become evenly
|
||
distributed in the region. That is the tendency toward randomness,
|
||
and this distribution can be described statistically. But since heat
|
||
is just the kinetic energy of the molecules in these simple cases, it
|
||
is a tendency of kinetic energy to become evenly distributed heat,
|
||
equalizing the temperature everywhere. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
tendency continues to hold when we take various complications into
|
||
account. For example, collisions among real molecules are not
|
||
necessarily elastic, because they can absorb some of the kinetic
|
||
energy being exchanged. But as the kinetic energy is evened out among
|
||
the objects, so is the energy absorbed by their parts. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">And though
|
||
material objects also emit and absorb photons, the spatial
|
||
distributions of the locations, directions, and energies of the
|
||
photons in the region also tends to be evened out by their
|
||
interactions with the material objects, assuming that photons are
|
||
reflected back and the region is closed. There are no kinds of
|
||
interactions that can prevent the randomness.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
tendency toward randomness is that aspect of the law of entropy that
|
||
is described as heat flowing from regions of high temperature to
|
||
regions lower temperature, like water from high altitudes to lower
|
||
altitudes. And since kinetic energy is a form of matter, according to
|
||
this ontological explanation, it can even seen as vindicating the
|
||
belief that heat is a “caloric fluid” that exists in addition to
|
||
the rest masses of the objects involved. It is a form of matter that
|
||
flows from hot regions to cold. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
is nothing very original about this explanation of the tendency to
|
||
randomness. These effects are obvious to anyone who thinks about
|
||
concrete examples of this tendency. What is new is recognizing that
|
||
the tendency depends not only on the nature of matter (that is, the
|
||
basic laws of physics), but also on the nature of the space with
|
||
parts of which all the bits of matter coincide.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Our
|
||
ontological foundation entitles us to take space into account as an
|
||
ontological cause in explaining regularities about change. The
|
||
wholeness of space is what requires the motion and interaction of all
|
||
the objects to add up over time, as in all global regularities. But
|
||
how they add up over time also depends on the structure of space, for
|
||
it is only against the background of space that the causally relevant
|
||
factors determine a geometrical structure. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is the lack of evenness in the spatial distribution of one or more of
|
||
the relevant efficient causes (their locations, kinetic energies, or
|
||
directions of momentum) that makes the state non-random. And in each
|
||
case, a geometrical structure about the non-random state is what
|
||
causes the tendency toward randomness. It is the structure of space
|
||
that determines where their motions will lead them and which objects
|
||
they will interact with next. And we have seen how the unevenness in
|
||
the distribution of the causally relevant factors puts certain
|
||
objects are in asymmetrical situations which will eventually even out
|
||
the spatial distribution of these factors. Thus, the temporal
|
||
asymmetry of the second law of thermodynamics is a result, not only
|
||
of the basic laws of physics, but also of how the motion and elastic
|
||
collisions of material objects obeying those laws <i>add up over time
|
||
because they are contained by space</i>.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Thus,
|
||
when we take space into account, there is no mystery about why there
|
||
is a temporal direction to change in which the kinetic energy of
|
||
objects in non-random states winds up as heat evenly distributed in
|
||
the region. The geometrical structure involved in any unevenness
|
||
about the distribution of the three relevant factors is what causes
|
||
those aspects of matter to become evened out in space, that is, more
|
||
like the structure of space containing them.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>The
|
||
second law of thermodynamics. </b></i>This ontological explanation of
|
||
the second law of thermodynamics reveals that two different global
|
||
regularities are involved: a tendency of potential energy to become
|
||
kinetic energy (and/or photons) and a tendency of kinetic energy
|
||
(and/or photons) to become evenly distributed heat. In both cases,
|
||
there is a geometrical structure about the region that tends to be
|
||
wiped out by how objects move and interact. One is the geometrical
|
||
structure that the region has because it contains the geometrical
|
||
structures inherent in the potential energy of forces (which can
|
||
become kinetic energy). The other is the nonrandom distribution of
|
||
causally relevant factors in the region (which tends toward the
|
||
randomness of evenly distributed heat). Both kinds of geometrical
|
||
structures tend to go out of existence, as we have seen, because that
|
||
is how the motion and interaction of the bits of matter adds up over
|
||
time because of the uniform structure of the space containing them.
|
||
In one case, when the energy of position becomes energy of motion,
|
||
matter with an inherent geometrical structure is replaced by a form
|
||
of matter that can be broken up into different pieces. And in the
|
||
other case, when any of the causally relevant factors is unevenly
|
||
distributed, that is a geometrical structure in the region that tends
|
||
to wipe itself out over time, with kinetic energy winding up as heat
|
||
evenly distributed in the region. When geometrical structures of
|
||
either kind go out of existence, only very special situations can
|
||
bring them back into existence. And these two tendencies are
|
||
connected, because the tendency to kinetic energy supplies nonrandom
|
||
dynamic processes that tend to become random. Together, they make up
|
||
a temporally asymmetrical change in the region as a whole. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Given how
|
||
both global regularities involve the disappearance of a special kind
|
||
of geometrical structure in the region as time passes, it may be
|
||
useful to suggest that the law of entropy increase can be seen as a
|
||
kind of four dimensional geometrical structure in the region as a
|
||
whole. In its most complete expression, the geometrical structure
|
||
inherent in potential energy becomes the geometrical structure
|
||
inherent in nonrandom distributions of causally relevant factors,
|
||
which in turn becomes the lack of any salient geometrical structure
|
||
inherent in the randomness of evenly distributed heat. At the later
|
||
edge of this four dimensional structure, the bits of matter have the
|
||
kind of geometrical structure that is most like the structure of the
|
||
space containing it. It is as if matter in the region were coming to
|
||
mirror the uniform structure of space. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
explanation of the second law of thermodynamics solves a puzzle about
|
||
the reduction of the second law of thermodynamics to physics. The law
|
||
of entropy seems to resist reduction to the laws of physics, because
|
||
it describes a regularity about change that is asymmetrical in time,
|
||
whereas the laws of physics describing how the material objects
|
||
interact are all time-symmetrical. The temporal asymmetry of the law
|
||
of entropy comes, however, not from the laws of physics by
|
||
themselves, but from the forms of matter they describe having
|
||
geometrical aspects that are casually relevant in how local changes
|
||
adds up in space over time. Both tendencies involved in the
|
||
explanation of the law of entropy are a result of how geometrical
|
||
structures about the matter involved are efficient cause of their own
|
||
extinction. That solves the problem. (See <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Change:
|
||
Epistemological philosophy of causation: Second law of
|
||
thermodynamics</font>.) </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>The
|
||
thermodynamic flow of matter. </b></i>If we look at the second law of
|
||
thermodynamics in terms of matter, the two tendencies can also be
|
||
seen as a “thermodynamic flow of matter” from potential energy to
|
||
evenly distributed heat. This is a flow of matter in a certain
|
||
“direction” through a series of forms of matter. The matter
|
||
starts off as part of the rest masses of the material objects
|
||
involved, for matter in that form is what constitutes the forces that
|
||
the objects exert on one another. When the objects have spatial
|
||
relations in which their forces can accelerate one another, it is
|
||
potential energy. And when potential energy is actualized, the matter
|
||
takes the form of kinetic matter, which lacks any inherent
|
||
geometrical structure, since it is a form matter that is located at
|
||
the material object’s center of mass. And since interactions among
|
||
material objects tend to equalize their kinetic energy (and other
|
||
causally relevant factors), kinetic matter tends to become randomized
|
||
as heat and evenly distributed in space as heat. Since matter flows
|
||
through these forms in only one direction, however, matter winds up
|
||
as evenly distributed heat, that is, with higher entropy in the
|
||
region.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This
|
||
thermodynamic flow can also involve potential energy becoming
|
||
photons, but they are merely another route to evenly distributed
|
||
heat. The photons interact with the material objects and become
|
||
randomized for much the same reasons. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is to
|
||
characterize the global regularities described by the second law of
|
||
thermodynamics as if the processes followed a direct path to evenly
|
||
distributed heat of increasing entropy. But the thermodynamic flow of
|
||
matter may include twists and turns in which some of the kinetic
|
||
energy becomes potential energy in other forms only to be released
|
||
again as kinetic energy before finally turning into heat that is then
|
||
evenly distributed in space. As we shall see, such transformations
|
||
between potential and kinetic energy are how machines use this kind
|
||
of matter, as free energy, to do work. Similarly, though nonrandom
|
||
distributions of the three causally relevant factors becomes evenly
|
||
distributed heat, it may be used as free energy to do work, as in
|
||
heat engines, which may create potential energy and give some objects
|
||
high kinetic energy, before it becomes evenly distributed heat. These
|
||
complications will be considered when we take up structural
|
||
causation. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>The
|
||
transformation of free energy into entropy. </b></i>To sum this up in
|
||
more familiar terms, at the most general level, according to the
|
||
second law of thermodynamics, what is happening in any closed or
|
||
isolated region of space is the transformation of free energy into
|
||
entropy. <i>Free energy </i>is all the energy in the region that has
|
||
not yet become evenly distributed heat, where heat is simply
|
||
randomness in the motion and interaction of the simplest physical
|
||
objects that can move relative to one another. And <i>entropy </i>is,
|
||
technically, a measure of how much of the total energy in the region
|
||
exists in the form of evenly distributed heat. The second law of
|
||
thermodynamics, or law of entropy, holds that in a closed or isolated
|
||
system, entropy can increase, but it cannot decrease. That is, all
|
||
the other physical forms of energy (that is, forms of matter) are
|
||
ineluctably becoming evenly distributed heat. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">This
|
||
is the supposedly bleak image of a world made up of matter in motion
|
||
which sees the universe as condemned to a “heat death.” This
|
||
image has traditionally been used to discredit materialism, or at
|
||
least discourage belief in it. But if we consider what it means more
|
||
concretely at the scale of planetary systems, the transformation of
|
||
free energy into entropy is, as we shall see, the fountain of
|
||
everything valuable in the world. Free energy is what makes it
|
||
possible for structural causes to do work, as we shall see next. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">To
|
||
talk of “free energy” is to classify energy by its capacity to be
|
||
used by machines to do work, but concretely, such free energy takes
|
||
many different <i>physical </i>forms. On the scale of a planetary
|
||
system, the richest and most constant source of free energy is the
|
||
star, because such a huge accumulation of mass has a gravitational
|
||
field that contains an enormous amount of potential energy. The
|
||
energy stored in its force field is the source of all the free energy
|
||
that will eventually become evenly distributed heat (except for
|
||
energy from radioactive decay). Its gravitational field constantly
|
||
accelerates bits of matter toward its center. Even inside the star
|
||
itself, the inward acceleration of more distant matter causes a
|
||
pressure that is balanced against the kinetic energy (and photons)
|
||
constituting the random motion and interaction of more centrally
|
||
located particles and their electromagnetic interactions. Indeed, the
|
||
kinetic energy is great enough for the collisions of protons,
|
||
neutrons and small nuclei to bring them within the short range of the
|
||
strong attractive force that they can exert on one another, and as it
|
||
fuses them together, the potential energy of the strong force is
|
||
actualized as kinetic energy and photons, decreasing their rest
|
||
masses. High energy photons (and other particles) escaping at the
|
||
surface of a star radiate outward toward cold, empty space, showing
|
||
the surrounding planets. Since radiation is a form of free energy
|
||
(like kinetic energy before it is randomized), it can be used to do
|
||
work on the planets intercepting it. Not only do photons heat the
|
||
planet, but they supply energy in a form that can drive chemical
|
||
interactions. There is also heat from the tidal forces that planets
|
||
orbiting a star suffer as they rotate on their own axis (and from the
|
||
radioactive decay of particles making up the planets). The energy
|
||
eventually flows through the planets, since planets also lose heat as
|
||
they radiate energy into cold empty space in the form of lower-energy
|
||
photons. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
star’s radiation is, therefore, a form of energy that can be used
|
||
by machines on planets to do work, or free energy. This is the
|
||
setting, as we shall see, for reproductive causation to generate its
|
||
spectacular global regularity. But first we must consider how this
|
||
thermodynamic flow can be used to do work, and that is an effect of
|
||
structural causation.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif"><b>S<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC23" align="right" hspace="5" width="66" height="21" border="0">tructural
|
||
global regularities. </b></font>Spatial and material causation are
|
||
the most direct ways that space and matter impose regularities on
|
||
change in whole regions over time. But they are not the only ways,
|
||
because the forms of matter that explain the truth of the basic laws
|
||
of physics are not the only kinds of substances that can coincide
|
||
with space. The nature of matter also makes non-basic, or derivative
|
||
substances possible, and they can work together with space as
|
||
ontological causes to generate global regularities. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
everything that coincides with space is made of matter, matter is
|
||
capable of being organized into more complex material substances that
|
||
move around in space and interact as units with other bits of matter,
|
||
and the wholeness of space also requires their motion and interaction
|
||
to add up in space over time. They are more complex ontological
|
||
causes, and they add up in space over time to more complex
|
||
regularities about the change that takes place in entire regions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">These more
|
||
complex ontological causes are “derivative substances” (or
|
||
“derivative ontological causes”) because they are constituted by
|
||
the basic ontological causes, matter and space. Though they can
|
||
endure through time like basic substances, they can also come into
|
||
existence and go out of existence as time passes. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">These more
|
||
complex kinds of substances include not only material objects with
|
||
unchanging geometrical structures, such as ordinary composite
|
||
objects, from cups to automobiles, but also a more complex,
|
||
temporally structured kind of process that is based on such material
|
||
structures. The first is discussed in this chapter, and the second
|
||
will be taken up in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Reproductive
|
||
global regularities.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In both
|
||
cases, however, the derivative substances are ontological causes of
|
||
global regularities, because they work together with space to cause
|
||
change to be regular in entire regions by their continuous existence
|
||
through time as (derivative) substances that coincide with some part
|
||
of space or other in the region. Though the wholeness of space is
|
||
what requires motion and interaction to add up in space over time,
|
||
how their motion and interaction adds up in space over time depends
|
||
on their natures as (derivative) substances as well as the structure
|
||
of space. And as we shall see, they add up to complex global
|
||
regularities about change. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">Material
|
||
Structures.</font> Since material structures are just material
|
||
objects with relatively stable geometrical structures, most ordinary
|
||
objects are examples of them. They have geometrical structures that
|
||
do not change in relatively wide ranges of interactions because they
|
||
are byproduct of certain cases of the tendency of potential energy to
|
||
become kinetic (one of the two material global regularities). Thus,
|
||
they continue to exist in the region even when entropy is maximum.
|
||
Though as we shall see, material structures can be constructed by
|
||
machines using free energy to do work, that is just a more complex
|
||
example of the structural global regularities to be explained. And
|
||
the existence of material structures does not depend on such
|
||
machines, because there are material structures that form naturally. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The best
|
||
examples of such naturally forming structures involve the
|
||
electromagnetic forces described by quantum field theory. It account
|
||
for the formation of atoms (from nuclei and electrons), molecules
|
||
(from atoms), and crystals, rocks and other natural material objects
|
||
(from molecules). But similar explanations hold for the formation of
|
||
the nuclei of atoms. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Material
|
||
structures come to exist naturally because of the attractive forces
|
||
that simpler material objects exert on one another. The exertion of
|
||
attractive forces across space is a form of potential energy that can
|
||
draw material objects together and bind them into relationships with
|
||
one another that are stable and do not change. The stability of such
|
||
composite objects comes from the parts giving up potential energy as
|
||
kinetic energy (or radiation) when they form themselves into a unit,
|
||
because, once united, their bonds to one another cannot be broken,
|
||
unless subsequent interactions supply enough energy in the right form
|
||
to make up for the energy that was lost forming the bonds. The
|
||
improbability of that happening is, as we have seen, what causes the
|
||
tendency to kinetic energy. (Kinetic matter and photons lack the
|
||
inherent geometrical structure of potential energy, and thus, almost
|
||
anything that happens to such matter will make it impossible for it
|
||
to regain its initial geometrical structure as potential energy). But
|
||
the quantum nature of the interactions helps account for their
|
||
stability, because that means the objects can be freed from their
|
||
embrace with one another only when enough energy is supplied by a
|
||
single interaction (as illustrated by the photo-electric effect).
|
||
Thus, such composite objects have geometrical structures that do not
|
||
change even though they are interacting with other objects (as long
|
||
as the energy of those interactions is not too great). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Thought
|
||
material structures may seem to override the tendency to randomness,
|
||
they are just byproducts of the tendency toward kinetic energy, the
|
||
other global regularity involved in the second law of thermodynamics.
|
||
</font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Material
|
||
structures may seem to override the tendency toward randomness in two
|
||
ways. Instead of interacting by elastic collision, the parts of
|
||
composite objects exert forces that bind them to one another, and
|
||
thus, instead of being spread out evenly in space, material objects
|
||
are clustered together in the same local area. And instead of winding
|
||
up with momentums in every which direction, the parts of such
|
||
structures all have much the same direction, like a wind with fixed
|
||
parts. In other words, instead of being a gas or liquid, they are a
|
||
solid state of matter, which moves and interacts as a whole.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote35anc" href="#sdendnote35sym"><sup>xxxv</sup></a></sup></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">But instead
|
||
of overriding the tendency to randomness, they exemplify the other
|
||
material global regularity that is covered by the second law of
|
||
thermodynamics. The existence of material structures is part of the
|
||
price that is paid to have kinetic energy that can become randomized
|
||
as evenly distributed heat. It is the loss of potential energy (which
|
||
is actually a loss of rest mass) that binds the parts into stable
|
||
geometrical structures. Their formation is part of the process of
|
||
free energy becoming entropy. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Composite
|
||
material objects with unchanging geometrical structures are the
|
||
derivative ontological causes that will be called “material
|
||
structures” or “structural causes”. But it should be noted that
|
||
not all objects that form naturally as byproducts of the tendency of
|
||
potential energy to become kinetic energy are material structures,
|
||
and the main exceptions, not surprisingly, result from gravitation. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Stars form
|
||
as a result of gravitation, but these “composite objects” do not
|
||
have unchanging geometrical structures in this sense. Gravitation
|
||
concentrates material objects in certain locations, and though this
|
||
is a deviation from the tendency of rest masses to be distributed
|
||
evenly throughout space, the forces are so great, when enough matter
|
||
is concentrated at some location, that material objects continue to
|
||
move and interact randomly with one another, as a plasma of nuclei
|
||
and electrons (a fourth state of matter, besides solids, liquids and
|
||
gases). This gives stars only the minimal geometrical structure
|
||
required to speak of them as composite objects at all. They
|
||
approximate a sphere, but since there are no unchanging spatial
|
||
relations among particular parts that would give the whole a
|
||
geometrical structure that remains stable as it interacts with other
|
||
objects in space, they are not structural ontological causes. Though
|
||
planets and smaller astronomical bodies do acquire unchanging
|
||
geometrical structures from gravitational attraction, they also
|
||
depend on the parts forming bonds based on electromagnetic forces. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">If
|
||
gravitational acceleration is explained by the acceleration of the
|
||
ether, then the nature of the gravitational force would explain why
|
||
stars are different from objects that depend on other forces.
|
||
Material objects that are clustered simply because of the ether (by
|
||
which they coincide with space) accelerating them towards one another
|
||
do not necessarily form bonds with one another. By contrast, the
|
||
interactions on which other kinds of composite objects are based
|
||
involve either opposite forces of attraction and repulsion canceling
|
||
one another out (as in electromagnetism) or are short range forces
|
||
(as in the weak and strong forces), and they all have a quantum
|
||
nature which helps makes the structures they constitute stable. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">It should
|
||
be noticed, however, that even some composite objects formed by
|
||
forces with a quantum nature lack unchanging geometrical structures.
|
||
For example, water molecules interact by weak electromagnetic forces,
|
||
called “hydrogen bonds”, but when water forms into a drop, the
|
||
molecules continue to move relative to one another as they interact,
|
||
resembling to some extent star-like gravitational objects on a small
|
||
scale.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">R<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC24" align="right" hspace="5" width="66" height="29" border="0">eversible
|
||
processes. </font>The existence of material structures depends on the
|
||
specific nature of the matter that helps constitute the actual world,
|
||
and when they exist, the <i>wholeness </i>of the space containing
|
||
them causes their motion and interaction in any region to add up over
|
||
time as regularities about entire regions of space. But since they
|
||
have a geometrical structure, how they add up also depends on the
|
||
<i>structure </i>of space. Though the new global regularity is rather
|
||
simple by itself, it makes all the difference in the world, as we
|
||
shall see, when combined with material global regularities, that is,
|
||
free energy, for that is what constitutes irreversible processes.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
is regular in the case of reversible processes is not just that the
|
||
geometrical structure of the material object does not change. That is
|
||
a property of the composite object, rather than a property of region
|
||
as a whole. But since its geometrical structure does not change over
|
||
time, there is a geometrical structure about the dynamic processes in
|
||
the region that does not change, and <i>that </i>is a global
|
||
regularity. In other words, material structures contribute to the
|
||
geometrical structure of the region in much the same way that
|
||
potential energy does, by its inherent geometrical structure. The
|
||
difference, of course, is that the material structures do not lose
|
||
their geometrical structure as potential energy tends to do as it
|
||
becomes kinetic. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">As
|
||
long as the composite object’s geometrical structure does not go
|
||
out of existence, it is like a new kind of material substance, which
|
||
is not mentioned by the basic laws of physics. Indeed, the reason
|
||
material structures are ontological causes is that, like space and
|
||
more elementary forms of matter, they exist continuously over time
|
||
like substances. And since change is just an aspect of substances
|
||
enduring through time, material structures cause change to be regular
|
||
by helping constitute the process. As in all ontological
|
||
explanations, that is how the essential natures of substances help
|
||
determine the nature of what is found in the natural world. Material
|
||
structures are unchanging aspects of the substances making up the
|
||
region as time passes. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Material
|
||
structures cause a global regularity, because as they move and
|
||
interact as particular substances in space, their geometrical
|
||
structures help determine, along with the structure of space and the
|
||
other bits of matter in the region, how change occurs as time passes.
|
||
Though everything happens by efficient causation, the motion and
|
||
interaction of material structures with other bits of matter must add
|
||
up over time in space. The kind of global regularity that material
|
||
structures add up to is simple. It is just the existence of the
|
||
material structures in the region moving and interacting with other
|
||
bits of matter. And material structures with different geometrical
|
||
structure impose different regularities on how geometrical structures
|
||
of whole regions change over time. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Though
|
||
the wholeness of the space containing all the bits of matter is what
|
||
makes their motion and interaction add up over time, how the motion
|
||
and interaction of material structures adds up over time depends on
|
||
the structure of the space containing them. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
the first place, the uniform structure of space makes it possible for
|
||
composite objects to move without changing the spatial relations
|
||
among their parts. Every local area in space has a geometrical
|
||
structure that can contain any specific kind of geometrical structure
|
||
that composite material objects may have. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Second,
|
||
when such objects do interact, space allows what happens to depend
|
||
not only on the forces that the objects exert on each other (by way
|
||
of the forces exerted by the parts of such geometrical structures),
|
||
but also on how their geometrical structures fit together. This is a
|
||
geometrical aspect about how material objects in the region interact
|
||
with one another that cannot even be simulated by forces. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Material
|
||
structures can, therefore, be said to <i>structure </i>dynamic
|
||
processes. Thus, structural global regularities of are “structured
|
||
dynamic processes”. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Even
|
||
though structural global regularities may be little more than the
|
||
existence of material structures in the region, there is no doubt
|
||
that the existence of such geometrical structures in the region
|
||
imposes a regularity on change in the region. It can be seen in how
|
||
round pegs, but not square pegs, fit into the round holes in a board,
|
||
how rings linked with one another act like a chain, or how molecules
|
||
can be confined in a box. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Consider,
|
||
for example, a box of gas that is part of a larger (closed) region of
|
||
space. Although the molecules are not bound to the box and move
|
||
around independently of it, those on the inside never get outside,
|
||
while the molecules on the outside never get inside. This is because
|
||
the box has a geometrical structure that, together with the structure
|
||
of space, leaves no route for molecules to move from one region to
|
||
the other. The gas molecules are not equally likely to be located in
|
||
every part of the region, and as the box moves around in the region,
|
||
the structure about the distribution of matter in the region changes
|
||
in a regular way, because the otherwise randomly moving molecules
|
||
always move around inside the box. The dynamic process taking place
|
||
in that region has, therefore, a geometrical structure that does not
|
||
change over time. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
part-whole relationship in the box-of-gas example suggests a more
|
||
general point about material structures and the global regularities
|
||
they and space generate: the unchanging geometrical structure of a
|
||
composite object as a whole constrains the motion and interactions of
|
||
its parts, and that generates (regular) behavior in the object as a
|
||
whole. This is, perhaps, obvious in complex machinery, but consider a
|
||
simple example, two rings linked together. The rings can move and
|
||
interact independently of one another to some extent, but their
|
||
locations are not random, because they can move only within limits
|
||
which are imposed by the geometrical structure of the object as a
|
||
whole. This further geometrical structure about what happens to the
|
||
rings is a kind of global regularity about change over time that
|
||
might well be called the “behavior” of the object as a whole. The
|
||
behavior of chains of many such linked rings is quite useful in
|
||
communicating forces from one place to another. The notion that the
|
||
whole controls the part is sometimes thought to entail a holism that
|
||
is incompatible with materialistic reductionism, but when we
|
||
recognize that the substances constituting such objects include space
|
||
as well as matter, a regular behavior on the part of the whole is
|
||
just what is expected. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Structural
|
||
causation introduces a complication into the ontological explanations
|
||
of spatiomaterialism, because material structures are derivative
|
||
ontological causes. In order to be ontological causes of the global
|
||
regularity about change, they must endure through the whole period.
|
||
But over longer periods of time, material structures do come into
|
||
existence and go out of existence. In speaking of them as ontological
|
||
causes, we are treating them like substances, which have essential
|
||
natures, that is, properties that hold at each moment of their
|
||
existence and help determine how contingent properties come and go
|
||
over time. But since they are derivative ontological causes, we must
|
||
take into account their “generation” and “corruption”, much
|
||
as Aristotle did in explaining his very different kinds of substances
|
||
with essential forms. They are analogous to the various,
|
||
interconvertible forms of matter we distinguished in order to explain
|
||
the basic laws of physics ontologically, except that we can explain
|
||
the generation and corruption of material structures from simpler
|
||
substances by their motion and interaction in space according to the
|
||
basic laws of physics. However, the advantages of introducing this
|
||
complication far outweigh the disadvantages. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Many
|
||
puzzles are cleared up by recognizing that material structures are
|
||
ontological causes. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">It
|
||
settles, for example, a question about the criterion for the identity
|
||
of ordinary objects over time that arises for epistemological
|
||
philosophers. Material objects are commonly classified by their
|
||
geometrical structures, and some epistemological philosophers (</span></font></font><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Hirsh82"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Hirsh</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">1982,
|
||
p. 134) rely on it so heavily that they are tempted to believe that
|
||
simply having the same kind of geometrical structure at a later
|
||
moment would be sufficient for its identity—even if the object were
|
||
to vanish from one location at one moment and were to appear
|
||
somewhere else the next. That is not a case we need to worry about,
|
||
since it is not even possible according to our ontology. But the
|
||
recognition of material structures as ontological causes can solve
|
||
puzzles about identity posed by epistemologists who pit having the
|
||
same geometrical structure against spatio-temporal continuity. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Hirsh82"><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US"><u>Nozick</u></span></font></font></a><font color="#000000"><span lang="en-US">
|
||
</span></font><font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><span lang="en-US">(1981,
|
||
p. 29ff), for example, considers the case of Theseus’ ship, which
|
||
is rebuilt, plank by plank, over a period of time. One would
|
||
ordinarily claim that what results from the rebuilding is the same
|
||
ship, although none of the parts is the same. But Nozick poses a
|
||
further question by supposing that each of the parts of the original
|
||
ship is saved and later used to reassemble the original ship. He
|
||
asks, which later ship is identical to the original ship. Nozick’s
|
||
answer is the “closest continuer theory”, which has intuition
|
||
deciding in each case (and for each person) which is closest. But if
|
||
we recognize how global regularities depend on ontological causes, it
|
||
is clear which ship is identical to the original ship, because only
|
||
one of them has an unchanging geometrical structure that can cause
|
||
change to be regular by existing continuously over all that time as a
|
||
substance. Its role as an ontological cause determines its identity
|
||
over time. </span></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
recognition of global regularities solves various problems about the
|
||
irreducibility of less general laws in science to the laws of
|
||
physics, as we shall see in <font face="Arial, sans-serif">Epistemological
|
||
philosophy of causation</font>. The general form of the problem can
|
||
be seen in the case of structural global regularities. Science tends
|
||
to overlook this explanatory role of material structures, because it
|
||
its looking for efficient causes, not ontological causes. The only
|
||
relevant factors involved in efficient-cause explanations, besides
|
||
the laws of physics (and mathematical theorems), are initial and
|
||
boundary conditions. A structural cause is not just an initial
|
||
condition (although it can be inferred from initial conditions
|
||
together with the relevant laws of physics), because it causes by its
|
||
continuous existence over the whole period of time that the global
|
||
regularly occurs. To be sure, boundary conditions also cause by
|
||
persisting through the period of the regularity. But structural
|
||
ontological causes are not boundary conditions, for they are not just
|
||
a condition about the system’s limits in space (how it is related
|
||
to or isolated from the rest of the world). Thus, structural
|
||
ontological causes tend to fall through the cracks. That is not to
|
||
say that they are ignored. It is rather they are implicit in
|
||
efficient causes that are recognized. The familiar
|
||
deductive-nomological model of explanation has no way to acknowledge
|
||
the distinctive kind of role that material structures play as
|
||
ontological causes of global regularities. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0; page-break-before: always">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><font face="Verdana, sans-serif">I<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="OdkC25" align="right" hspace="5" width="66" height="29" border="0">rreversible
|
||
processes.</font> Since structural global regularities are simply the
|
||
continued existence of material structures in a closed or isolated
|
||
region, they seem rather trivial. But structural causation can have
|
||
more dramatic effects when it is combined with material causation.
|
||
Since material objects coincide with space, their unchanging
|
||
geometrical structures can fit together with the geometrical
|
||
structures involved in the tendency toward kinetic energy and the
|
||
tendency toward randomness, since the latter also coincide with
|
||
space. In both tendencies, there are geometrical structures that are
|
||
wiped out by how bits of matter move and interact. The inherent
|
||
geometrical structure of potential energy is lost in the tendency
|
||
toward kinetic energy, and the geometrical structure of non-random
|
||
distributions of causally relevant factors is lost in the tendency to
|
||
randomness. Material structures can channel the flow of matter
|
||
through these geometrical forms, because their geometrical structures
|
||
coincide with parts of the same region of space where these
|
||
tendencies are exhibited. The reason that those tendencies are called
|
||
“free energy” is that material structures can thereby channel the
|
||
thermodynamic flow of matter from potential energy through kinetic
|
||
energy to evenly distributed heat to to bring about states of those
|
||
regions that would not otherwise occur. That is how machines use free
|
||
energy to do mechanical work. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">What
|
||
makes it possible for machines to use free energy to do work can be
|
||
explained ontologically, because we have already explained how
|
||
material structures are ontological causes that structure the motion
|
||
and interaction of other bits of matter in the region. Ordinary
|
||
machines have unchanging structures that are large enough to think of
|
||
them as ordinary macro-level material objects, by contrast to the
|
||
micro-level objects mentioned in describing thermodynamic processes.
|
||
Let us distinguish two ways that machines do work, depending on
|
||
whether the free energy comes from the tendency toward kinetic energy
|
||
or from the tendency toward randomness. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Free
|
||
energy from the tendency toward kinetic energy.</b></i> A machine has
|
||
an unchanging geometrical structure as a whole that constrains how
|
||
the parts of which it is composed can move and interact with one
|
||
another. Potential energy also has a geometrical structure, and when
|
||
the spatial relations among the forces involved combines with the
|
||
unchanging structure of a material object, the tendency of potential
|
||
energy to become kinetic energy can be channeled in ways that produce
|
||
useful outcomes (although it often involves complex processes in
|
||
which the kinetic energy is converted into other forms of potential
|
||
energy and back again to kinetic energy in order to produce the kinds
|
||
of changes that are desired). </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This can be
|
||
seen in a wide variety of cases. For example, the potential energy of
|
||
gravitation can be tapped by water wheels and other structural
|
||
causes, such as cog wheels, levers, wedges, and the like, to release
|
||
kinetic energy in a way that grinds corn, weaves cloth, or does other
|
||
mechanical work. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Free
|
||
energy from the tendency toward randomness.</b></i> The nonrandom
|
||
distributions of efficient causes that wipe themselves out in the
|
||
tendency toward randomness are made up of objects on the micro-level,
|
||
but since the nonrandom distribution itself is a geometrical
|
||
structure of the region as a whole, it can fit together with
|
||
macro-level material structures to do mechanical work. Distributions
|
||
of three kinds of efficient causes had to be mentioned in explaining
|
||
the tendency to randomness (the rest masses, kinetic energies, and
|
||
momentums of molecules), and we can find examples of machines using
|
||
each of them. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The most
|
||
familiar example involves the uneven distribution of kinetic energy.
|
||
The difference in temperature between two, spatially-separated sets
|
||
of material objects is what enables the steam engine to tap the free
|
||
energy that exists in the flow of kinetic energy from hot to cold.
|
||
The kinetic energy released by combustion of fuel flows across the
|
||
wall of a box to water, producing steam at high pressure, and its
|
||
expansion against a piston in a cylinder does mechanical work, such
|
||
as propelling a train along a track. Internal combustion engines are
|
||
as much heat engines as steam engines, although they eliminate the
|
||
step in which the flow of kinetic energy conducts heat from the
|
||
combustion of fuel to the water being heated by burning the fuel in
|
||
the very cylinder where the piston is pushed.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The other
|
||
two causally relevant factors whose uneven spatial distributions tend
|
||
to wipe themselves out can also be tapped by structural causes to do
|
||
work. The free expansion of a gas is used in jet propulsion, and the
|
||
uniform direction of momentums contained in a wind can be caught by a
|
||
sail to pull a boat along. In the latter case, it is even clearer
|
||
that the free energy comes from the flow of matter through
|
||
region-wide geometrical forms that is evening out the directions of
|
||
momentum, for a sail can propel a boat across wind or, better yet,
|
||
against it; the free energy comes, not just from going along with the
|
||
wind, but from making the molecules’ directions of momentum more
|
||
random. The same principle applies in wind mills and turbines. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
either case, whenever machines use free energy to do work, the
|
||
geometrical structure of some material object engages with some
|
||
region-wide geometrical structures involved in the tendency toward
|
||
kinetic energy or the tendency toward randomness so that the
|
||
thermodynamic flow of matter toward evenly distributed heat is
|
||
structured to do mechanical work. The kind of work done depends on
|
||
how the material structures coincide with the geometrical structure
|
||
of the potential energy or the nonrandom distribution of causally
|
||
relevant factors on the macro level in the region. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In some
|
||
machines, both tendencies are involved. For example, the potential
|
||
energy of the forces exerted at one location are communicated in
|
||
hydraulic machinery by using the tendency to randomness in liquids
|
||
confined in cylinders to transfer the kinetic energy and momentum
|
||
from one location to another. Electrical machinery works by the same
|
||
principle, except that the potential energy is communicated by freely
|
||
moving electrons confined to conductors, and the work is usually done
|
||
because of the magnetic forces set up by moving electric charges.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
sum, there are two kinds of global regularities caused ontologically
|
||
by material structures, reversible and irreversible processes. What
|
||
makes irreversible processes different is that what is being
|
||
structured is a thermodynamic flow of matter (that is, motion and
|
||
interaction in the region of a kind that is changing from potential
|
||
energy to kinetic energy or in which a nonrandom distribution of
|
||
causally relevant factors is wiping itself out). When there is no
|
||
thermodynamic flow of matter toward evenly distributed heat, entropy
|
||
is already maximum, and the global regularity is just a kind of
|
||
geometrical structure that holds of the whole region over a period of
|
||
time because some of the material objects moving and interacting
|
||
there are composite objects with geometrical structures that do not
|
||
change. That kind of global regularity was illustrated in the last
|
||
section by the box of gas and the interlocked rings. Any change that
|
||
takes place in such a region wide process could take place in the
|
||
opposite direction in time. But when a thermodynamic process is going
|
||
on in the region and a material structure uses its free energy to do
|
||
mechanical work, the change that occurs in the region is temporally
|
||
asymmetric. The work done depends on their being matter flowing
|
||
through geometrical forms from potential energy to evenly distributed
|
||
heat, and since some free energy is always lost to increasing entropy
|
||
in the process of using it to do mechanical work, the change taking
|
||
place in a closed system cannot return to its starting point. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Since
|
||
reversible structural global regularities do not depend on material
|
||
global regularities (except for how material structures are a
|
||
byproduct of the tendency of potential energy to become kinetic),
|
||
they are not included in the following diagram of the relationships
|
||
among global regularities. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.5cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><img 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" name="GlbRSt" align="bottom" width="710" height="360" border="0"></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
essential role of space as an ontological cause of global
|
||
regularities is confirmed by irreversible process, for it is what
|
||
makes it possible to combine material and structural global
|
||
regularities. This can be seen in the steam engine, the concrete
|
||
phenomenon that led to the discovery of the second law of
|
||
thermodynamics. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
wholeness of space plays the same role in all global regularities: it
|
||
makes the motion and interaction of the bits of matter in the region
|
||
add up over time. But the structure of space plays a further role in
|
||
generating the material and structural global regularities, because
|
||
there is a geometrical aspect to how the motion and interaction adds
|
||
up as time passes. The regularity caused by material causation is
|
||
that two kinds of geometrical structures about the region as a whole
|
||
disappear, and the regularity caused by structural causation is that
|
||
the region contains material objects whose geometrical structures do
|
||
not change. In both cases, these geometrical structures are
|
||
superimposed on the uniform structure of the space in the region, and
|
||
that is what explains how these two global regularities can be
|
||
combined, for it is simply a matter of how the thermodynamic
|
||
structures fit together with the material structures. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Steam
|
||
engines, for example, are just material structures combined with
|
||
various thermodynamic processes in the same region of space. The free
|
||
energy consumed by steam engines is kinetic energy that comes from
|
||
combustion, that is, the tendency of potential energy in the fuel to
|
||
become the randomized kinetic energy of heat. This kinetic energy is
|
||
supplied where the material objects losing some of their rest mass
|
||
are located. But since that happens in a part of steam engine,
|
||
material structures can channel it to do work before the tendency to
|
||
randomness evens out the nonrandom distribution of this randomized
|
||
kinetic energy. It makes water in the boiler heat up, and as the
|
||
spatial distribution of causally relevant factors tends to even out,
|
||
and the momentum of the fast-moving molecules drives a piston in a
|
||
cylinder, doing mechanical work, such as lifting a weight in a
|
||
gravitational field. The way that the unchanging geometrical
|
||
structures of composite material objects coincide in space with the
|
||
region-wide geometrical structures that are disappearing due to the
|
||
thermodynamic flow of matter toward evenly distributed heat is what
|
||
explains how it is possible for heat engines to tap the free energy
|
||
contained in such thermodynamic processes to do work, and that
|
||
confirms the role of space an ontological cause in both kinds of
|
||
global regularities.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Perpetual
|
||
motion machines. </b></i>These examples of machines doing work
|
||
illustrate how material structures can combine with the free energy
|
||
contained the thermodynamic flow of matter toward evenly distributed
|
||
heat to produce changes that would not otherwise occur. But since
|
||
machines can do work, it might seem that they could structure it in
|
||
ways that would restore the free energy they are using. By returning
|
||
kinetic energy to its potential form or imposing a new nonrandom
|
||
distribution of causal factors on the dynamic process, structural
|
||
causes would be doing work without entropy increasing, that is,
|
||
without using up free energy. If the work done restored the
|
||
geometrical structure containing the free energy it uses, it would be
|
||
a machine that continues doing work forever, or a perpetual motion
|
||
machine. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">It
|
||
is not, however, possible, because any machine that structures a
|
||
thermodynamic flow of matter toward evenly distributed heat is itself
|
||
part of a larger process in which such a thermodynamic flow is taking
|
||
place. The machine itself is not exempt from the law of entropy
|
||
increase, if only because some of the free energy becomes evenly
|
||
distributed heat by flowing through the machine. The machine itself
|
||
is just another part of a region where the material global regularity
|
||
holds.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This can be
|
||
illustrated by a pendulum swinging in a gravitational field, the
|
||
example used to illustrate the tendency toward kinetic energy. The
|
||
material structure constrains the motion and interactions of its
|
||
parts so that the gravitational potential energy that the bob has at
|
||
its maximum height is released as kinetic energy, and that kinetic
|
||
energy is used to do the work of restoring it to its potential form.
|
||
But it cannot go on forever, because the potential energy that is
|
||
given up in each swing is never fully restored. When it is kinetic,
|
||
the pendulum gives up part of its energy to other objects with which
|
||
it interacts (for example, as it collides with molecules in the air
|
||
and causes friction in the rope suspending it), according to the
|
||
tendency of potential energy to become kinetic energy describes. And
|
||
the tendency toward randomness means that the thermodynamic flow of
|
||
matter through region-wide geometrical forms continues until the
|
||
matter becomes kinetic energy on the micro level and winds up as heat
|
||
energy evenly distributed throughout the region. Thus, the pendulum
|
||
slows down and eventually stops swinging altogether. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Similarly,
|
||
an elastic ball cannot bounce forever, using kinetic energy to
|
||
exchange gravitational potential energy for the electromagnetic
|
||
potential energy embodied in the ball’s deformation, because once
|
||
the energy is released as kinetic energy, it is not fully restored.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">More
|
||
generally, free energy can be stored in machines, either as potential
|
||
energy, kinetic energy on the macro level, or as cyclic
|
||
transformations between potential and kinetic energy. But when energy
|
||
is kinetic, interactions with other material objects divide up the
|
||
energy until the energy is randomized on the micro level and, as
|
||
heat, becomes evenly distributed throughout the region. Machines
|
||
produce less free energy than they consume, because some of the
|
||
thermodynamic flow of matter being channeled to do work flows
|
||
directly through the machine itself toward evenly distributed heat in
|
||
the region.</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
ultimate randomization of kinetic energy depends, as we have seen, on
|
||
three factors. The material structure <i>itself </i>resists the
|
||
randomization of two of these factors, but there is one kind of
|
||
efficient cause whose randomization it cannot resist. The unchanging
|
||
structure of the composite object means that the rest masses of its
|
||
parts do not become evenly distributed in the region. Moreover, since
|
||
they move together as a composite object, the parts all continue to
|
||
have much the same directions of momentum. But the parts can have
|
||
different kinetic energies (such as vibrations within the forces
|
||
holding them together), and kinetic energy does tend to become evenly
|
||
distributed among them, for any inequality in the distribution of
|
||
kinetic energy is a geometrical structure that tends to wipe itself
|
||
out. This aspect of tendency toward randomness will continue until
|
||
heat is evenly distributed throughout the region and everything has
|
||
the same temperature. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">There
|
||
are, therefore, no perfectly efficient machines. Machines use free
|
||
energy to do work, but as they do, some of it is inevitably lost as
|
||
heat energy, which becomes evenly distributed in the region,
|
||
increasing entropy in the region. The efficiency of a machine is
|
||
measured by how much of that free energy is actually made to do
|
||
mechanical work as that happens. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt"><i><b>Examples
|
||
of structural global regularities from nature. </b></i>Using machines
|
||
designed by humans to illustrate structured thermodynamic processes
|
||
should not, however, keep us from seeing how structural ontological
|
||
causes are responsible for global regularities found in nature. I
|
||
will describe some of them here, because these varieties of
|
||
structural causation will be used to explain how reproductive
|
||
causation get started in planetary systems. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
unchanging structures of atoms are, for example, structural causes of
|
||
the molecules that form naturally from them. The relevant geometrical
|
||
structure of the atom is the number of electrons the nucleus can bind
|
||
in the outermost shell. The ways in which the geometrical structures
|
||
of the atoms and the forces exerted by their parts fit together
|
||
geometrically explains why their motion and interaction add up over
|
||
time in the structure of space to the formation of molecules, a
|
||
composite object with a higher level of part-whole complexity. The
|
||
free energy for their bonds comes from the forces exerted by their
|
||
parts (the positive charges of the nuclei attracting the negative
|
||
charges of the electrons), and since the potential energy released by
|
||
their formation becomes kinetic energy (or radiation) that eventually
|
||
becomes heat evenly distributed throughout the region, it is
|
||
irreversible. The formation of molecules is, therefore, a naturally
|
||
occurring irreversible structural global regularity. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
a similar way, the structures of the molecules can, in turn, be
|
||
structural causes of yet higher levels of part-whole complexity. The
|
||
formation of crystals involves the attachment of one molecule after
|
||
another to a growing, regular geometrical structure.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" name="sdendnote36anc" href="#sdendnote36sym"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a></sup>
|
||
It is an example of structural causation, because the growth depends
|
||
on how the geometrical structures of the molecules fit together with
|
||
the crystal structure created by the attachment of the last molecule
|
||
and how the forces exerted by corresponding parts affect one another.
|
||
It is an irreversible structural global regularity, because it
|
||
depends on the free energy supplied by forces exerted by their parts
|
||
(often hydrogen bonds, which are weaker than those responsible for
|
||
the molecules). And the result is a new kind of material structure.
|
||
The kinetic energy released becomes part of the evenly distributed
|
||
heat, and the bonds of the molecules making up the crystal cannot be
|
||
broken without additional free energy, that is, unless enough energy
|
||
is concentrated at just the right point at the right moment to free
|
||
the molecule from its bonds to the crystal. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In living
|
||
objects, more complex structures of molecules have more complex
|
||
effects, such as the spontaneous formation of plasma membranes in
|
||
water and of complexes made up of various protein molecules from
|
||
their random motion and interaction. Plasma membranes are
|
||
self-assembling structures used as barriers in biological processes.
|
||
They are made of phospholipids, which are long, skinny molecules that
|
||
tend to line up like matches alongside one another as sheets (because
|
||
of weak, Van der Waals forces between them). The sheets form double
|
||
layers in water (since their hydrophobic surfaces are pushed
|
||
together), and the sheets tend to close on themselves in water to
|
||
form spheres. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Similarly,
|
||
protein molecules are amino acid molecules linked together like a
|
||
chain (by peptide bonds), and the geometrical structures (or
|
||
“conformations”) they take on in water often fit together in such
|
||
a way that weaker forces between corresponding parts hold them
|
||
together and make them stable.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Molecules
|
||
have structural effects other than merely forming higher levels of
|
||
part-whole complexity in material objects. They can act more like
|
||
machines. For example, their structure can give them a <i>behavior </i>as
|
||
a whole that produces another kind of material structure, which then
|
||
serves a structural cause. This occurs in protein molecules, the long
|
||
chains of various kinds of amino acid molecules that are the basic
|
||
micro-level machines in living organisms. Such chains can bend at
|
||
their chemical bonds so that weaker forces exerted by the various
|
||
amino acids bind parts of the chain to one another, giving the whole
|
||
chain a further geometrical structure as a whole. (That is, the
|
||
unchanging structure of the protein molecule not only constrains the
|
||
motions of its links relative to one another as they move in the
|
||
water and determines how the chain can bend, but it also thereby
|
||
determines which kinds of amino acids will be next to one another
|
||
when it bends in certain ways and, so, where weaker bonds will form
|
||
among the parts.) The resulting “conformation” of the protein is
|
||
usually the relevant material structure that structures thermodynamic
|
||
processes in living organisms. (The DNA molecule has a similar
|
||
behavior as a whole: the structure of the molecule so constrains the
|
||
motions of its parts relative to one another that DNA winds up as a
|
||
double helix.)</font></font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Molecules
|
||
can also be material structures that produce new material structures
|
||
by <i>acting on </i>other molecules. They are called “catalysts”.
|
||
But the most dramatic examples are proteins whose conformational
|
||
structure makes them “enzymes”. Such proteins hold other
|
||
molecules together and distort their shapes so that new chemical
|
||
bonds form among their parts, replacing the old, and thereby
|
||
producing molecules that are otherwise not likely to be formed at the
|
||
prevailing temperature. Such molecular machines are responsible for
|
||
the replication of DNA and the synthesis of proteins. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">In DNA
|
||
replication, proteins in conjunction with a DNA molecule are a
|
||
structural cause that catalyzes a long series of chemical changes in
|
||
other molecules so that another molecule acquires its structure. The
|
||
geometrical structure of the DNA and protein molecules does not
|
||
change, but it temporarily binds other molecules in a way that causes
|
||
bonds to form in them. Each such structural effect leaves both the
|
||
original DNA molecule and the copy being formed in a slightly
|
||
different state, so that a different kind of molecule will interact
|
||
with it the next time and the whole series results in a copy of the
|
||
original sequence. In a similar way, a series of structural effects
|
||
is responsible for synthesizing strands of amino acids into proteins,
|
||
this time, using an RNA molecule as the template and consuming energy
|
||
from other molecules in the process. But the structural cause in this
|
||
case is an enormously complex object with fifty-some different kinds
|
||
of proteins and several strands of RNA (together with tRNA to supply
|
||
the parts).</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">Enzymes
|
||
bring out the appropriateness of thinking of the unchanging
|
||
structures of molecules as machines. The free energy for the
|
||
catalyst’s work comes from the potential energy of the forces by
|
||
which the enzyme binds with the other molecules (the “substrate”),
|
||
but that energy is not ultimately lost to randomness, because it is
|
||
paid back from the free energy released in their forming stronger
|
||
bonds as the other molecules are freed from the enzyme. Thus, the
|
||
enzyme can act again. Enzymes can even construct complex molecules
|
||
with weaker, energy-rich bonds by extracting free energy from
|
||
energy-rich molecules available in the medium.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">On
|
||
a larger scale, what are called “physical properties” of bulk
|
||
matter, from rigidity and elasticity to transparency, color and
|
||
conductivity, are dispositions to behave in certain ways under
|
||
certain circumstances. But they can all be explained as irreversible
|
||
structural global regularities. The conditions under which the
|
||
disposition is exhibited supply a form of free energy, and the way
|
||
the material structures at the micro level within the composite
|
||
object structures that thermodynamic processes explains why the
|
||
physical object behaves as it does under those conditions. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
simplest case is rigidity itself, in which a force exerted on part of
|
||
a composite object is communicated to other parts because of the
|
||
bonds that are responsible for its unchanging geometrical structure. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">This is the
|
||
ontological explanation of the principle of the lever. The force
|
||
exerted at the end of a lever on one side of the fulcrum moves the
|
||
other end of the lever through a distance that depends on the
|
||
geometrical structure, and thus, if the distance the other end must
|
||
move is less, a weak force operating over a longer distance becomes a
|
||
strong force operating over a shorter distance. It is simply how the
|
||
material structure coincides with the free energy, in this case, the
|
||
force being exerted on one end of the lever.</font></font></p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 3.81cm; margin-right: 2.03cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif">The
|
||
collisions of billiard balls are an example of how rigidity itself is
|
||
a structural cause. As the first ball hits the second and comes to a
|
||
stop, the kinetic energy is absorbed, but since they are elastic, the
|
||
energy is stored as potential energy in the forces among the parts of
|
||
the billiard balls, and as those forces restore the shapes of the
|
||
balls, their potential energy becomes kinetic energy again, making
|
||
the second ball move away (conserving the total momentum of their
|
||
interaction). The structural cause in the billiard balls is what is
|
||
unchanging about the spatial relations of their parts as they absorb
|
||
and release energy. </font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">In
|
||
<i>malleable </i>materials, by contrast, the structural causes lie
|
||
wholly in the unchanging structures of the parts, because they are
|
||
the only geometrical structures that do not change when the
|
||
disposition is exhibited. Energy is absorbed locally from the forces
|
||
imposed, because the molecules have shapes that allow them to switch
|
||
their bonds with one another, giving the parts of the composite
|
||
object new spatial relations to one another as parts of the whole.
|
||
That is how the motion and interaction of the material structures add
|
||
up in space, when they start out with such bonds to one another and
|
||
free energy is supplied by a force being impressed. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 2.54cm; margin-right: 1.27cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">Material
|
||
objects also have other mass properties that can be explained in
|
||
similar ways, such as transparency, electrical conductivity, heat
|
||
conductivity. The colors that material objects appear to have when
|
||
illuminated by the whole spectrum of visible photons comes from some
|
||
wavelengths being absorbed, while others are reflected. The material
|
||
structure responsible for this global regularity lies in various
|
||
aspects of the micro-structure, which interact differently with
|
||
different wavelengths of light. (But colors in this sense are, of
|
||
course, physical properties, and they must be distinguished from the
|
||
appearances of colors to the subject, which are <i>qualia.</i>) </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-right: 2.54cm; margin-top: 0.49cm; margin-bottom: 0.49cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<font color="#000000"><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><font size="3" style="font-size: 12pt">The
|
||
explanation of dispositions by material and structural ontological
|
||
causation is a reduction of those regularities to spatiomaterialism,
|
||
and since that demonstrates their (conditional) ontological
|
||
necessity, it explains the nature of the casual connection involved
|
||
in these efficient causes. In the case of dispositions, the
|
||
regularities connecting causes and effects are just irreversible
|
||
structural global regularities, whose ontological causes are like
|
||
machines built into nature. The test conditions of the dispositions
|
||
are the efficient causes, and what happens are the effects. </font></font></font>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="western" align="left" style="margin-right: 2.03cm; text-indent: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.42cm; line-height: 100%; widows: 0; orphans: 0">
|
||
<br><br>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote1">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote1sym" href="#sdendnote1anc">i</a>This
|
||
is because the velocity of light relative to the object in motion is
|
||
different in opposite directions, and going one way the whole
|
||
distance at the lower (relative) velocity takes more extra time than
|
||
it can make up coming back over the same distance at the higher
|
||
(relative) velocity. Though the path back and forth is spatially
|
||
symmetric, the effect of the velocity of light relative to the frame
|
||
on the time of travel accumulates per unit time, and so the signal
|
||
loses more time than it gains.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote2">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote2sym" href="#sdendnote2anc">ii</a><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
equation was </span><span lang="en-US"><i>L=L</i></span><sub><span lang="en-US"><i>o<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image4" align="bottom" width="46" height="18" border="0"></i></span></sub><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
where </span><span lang="en-US"><i>L</i></span><sub><span lang="en-US"><i>o</i></span></sub><span lang="en-US">
|
||
was the length at absolute rest. The shrinkage had been proposed
|
||
independently by George F. Fitzgerald in 1889 and hence became known
|
||
as the “Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction”. Relevant portions of
|
||
Lorentz’s 1985 monograph and 1904 theory are reprinted in </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Lorentza"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Lorentz</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
</span><span lang="en-US"><i>et al</i></span><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
(1923, pp. 3-84).</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote3">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote3sym" href="#sdendnote3anc">iii</a><span lang="en-US">See
|
||
Stanley </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldbergc"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Goldberg</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1984, p. 98) and Roberto </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Torettic"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Torretti</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1983, pp. 45-6). Hereafter, these works are referred to as
|
||
“Goldberg” or “Torretti”, with page numbers. “Holton”
|
||
refers to </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldbergc"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Holton</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1973). “Zahar” refers to </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldbergc"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Zahar</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1989). </span>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote4">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote4sym" href="#sdendnote4anc">iv</a><span lang="en-US">The
|
||
discovery of the Lorentz distortions was complicated by the fact
|
||
that there are other effects of absolute motion on material objects,
|
||
besides those that are directly related to the Michelson-Morley
|
||
experiment. These are the “first-order” effects of motion in
|
||
space (which vary as </span><span lang="en-US"><i>v/c</i></span><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
rather than as </span><span lang="en-US"><i>v</i></span><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>2</i></span></font></sup><span lang="en-US"><i>/c</i></span><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><span lang="en-US"><i>2</i></span></font></sup><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
or “second order” effects), such as the way telescopes must be
|
||
inclined slightly in the direction of motion in order to intercept
|
||
light from overhead stars (much as umbrellas must be inclined
|
||
slightly forward in walking through rain to keep raindrops from
|
||
hitting one’s body). First order effects (including the effects on
|
||
the index of refraction) had previously been explained by the “ether
|
||
drag” hypothesis (that the motion of material objects drags the
|
||
ether along with them), but Lorentz abandoned it . Lorentz’s
|
||
explanation of length contraction assumed that the ether is totally
|
||
unaffected by the motion of material objects through it, and he had
|
||
no explanation of such first order effects except to state
|
||
transformation equations by which one could obtain the coordinates
|
||
used on the moving object from those used at absolute rest.
|
||
</span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldberc"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Goldberg</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
pp. 88-92; </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldbergc"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Torretti</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
pp. 41-45</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote5">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote5sym" href="#sdendnote5anc">v</a><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldbergc"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Zahar</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1989), p. 99; </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldbergc"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Holton</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1973, pp. 175-178).</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote6">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote6sym" href="#sdendnote6anc">vi</a><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldbergc"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Prokhovnik</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1985, Appendix 2) argues that in the original formulation of his
|
||
argument, Einstein was actually assuming the existence of a
|
||
stationary coordinate frame.</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote7">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote7sym" href="#sdendnote7anc">vii</a><span lang="en-US">H.
|
||
</span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Goldbergc"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Minkowski</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
“Space and Time”, reprinted in Lorentz, </span><span lang="en-US"><i>et
|
||
al,</i></span><span lang="en-US"> </span><span lang="en-US"><i>The
|
||
Principle of Relativity</i></span><span lang="en-US">, pp. 75-91. </span>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote8">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote8sym" href="#sdendnote8anc">viii</a><span lang="en-US">See,
|
||
for example, M. </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Friedman</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1983), J. </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Earman</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1989), and </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Putnama"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>J.
|
||
R. Lucas and P. E. Hodgson</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1990). </span>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote9">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote9sym" href="#sdendnote9anc">ix</a><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Prokovnik"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Prokhovnik</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1985, Chs. 5-6) develops a similar argument in a mathematically
|
||
general way, but the more intuitive approach used here brings out
|
||
the ontological significance.</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote10">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote10sym" href="#sdendnote10anc">x</a><span lang="en-US">This
|
||
distortion in longitudinal forces is not widely recognized. It is
|
||
suggested in a few obscure discussions of the difference between
|
||
“transverse mass” and “longitudinal mass” that follows from
|
||
Einstein’s special theory. See </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Prokovnik"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Okun</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1989). This complication in Einstein’s theory is not usually
|
||
acknowledged in textbooks in this field (and I thank Howard Reese
|
||
for bringing it to my attention). But since it makes no sense to
|
||
suppose that mass is different in different directions, the only
|
||
possible explanation of the principle of relativity (as opposed to
|
||
mathematical deduction) is a relativistic decrease in longitudinal
|
||
forces. </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Prokovnik"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Prokhovnik</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1985) recognizes it, and he explains it mathematically as a
|
||
retarded potential. (It is as if the force involved a two-way trip
|
||
at the velocity of light in order to act). </span>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote11">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote11sym" href="#sdendnote11anc">xi</a>The
|
||
slope of the moving space-line is found in the Newtonian diagram of
|
||
space and time by calculating the difference between the absolute
|
||
time of reflection, <i>T</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>1</i></font></sub>,
|
||
and the time halfway during the round trip, <i>(T</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>1
|
||
</i></font></sub><i>+ T</i><sub><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sub><i>)/2,</i>
|
||
calculating the absolute distance between those events, and dividing
|
||
the latter into the former.
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote12">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote12sym" href="#sdendnote12anc">xii</a>In
|
||
Minkowski’s derivation, the slope is the value of the first
|
||
derivative of his equation for the hyperbola when <i>t = x/v </i>(i.e.,
|
||
when
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="StrEqXvsc" align="bottom" width="80" height="35" border="0">),
|
||
or <i>v/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>.
|
||
And the length of the unit of distance on the moving space-line is
|
||
the distance required for light to have velocity <i>c</i>, that is,
|
||
the distance light actually travels in a unit of time according to
|
||
slowed-down clocks, which in terms of the length of the contracted
|
||
rod, <i>L'</i>, is also
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="StrEqLPrime" align="bottom" width="50" height="31" border="0">,
|
||
or an effective expansion of the measuring rod at the square of the
|
||
usual rate.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote13">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote13sym" href="#sdendnote13anc">xiii</a>The
|
||
Lorentz transformation equations that Einstein derived also imply
|
||
that the others’ space-line at the point of coincidence of origins
|
||
is represented by the line, <i>t = vx/c</i><sup><font size="1" style="font-size: 8pt"><i>2</i></font></sup>.
|
||
Solve the moving observer's Lorentz transformation equations for
|
||
both time and space on the assumption that <i>t' = 0</i> (the moving
|
||
space-line through the absolute origin) and combine.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote14">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote14sym" href="#sdendnote14anc">xiv</a>Mathematically,
|
||
where <i>L</i> is the absolute measuring rod, <i>L'=L<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image8" align="bottom" width="46" height="18" border="0"></i>
|
||
is the actually contracted moving measuring rod and <i>L"=<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image9" align="bottom" width="50" height="31" border="0">
|
||
</i>is the virtually expanded moving measuring rod, we know that
|
||
<i>L=L"<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="Image10" align="bottom" width="46" height="18" border="0"></i>,
|
||
and since moving observers mistakenly assume that <i>L</i>'<i>=L",
|
||
</i>that is the appearance that the absolute measuring rod is
|
||
contracted relative to the moving measuring rod.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote15">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote15sym" href="#sdendnote15anc">xv</a>Measuring
|
||
rods can also be measured with clocks, by timing how long it takes
|
||
for the others’ measuring rod to pass by traveling at <i>v</i>.
|
||
The absolute observers’ measurement is veridical, but the
|
||
appearance to moving observers that absolute measuring rods are
|
||
contracted results from using slowed down clocks.
|
||
Mis-synchronization is also implicated in this appearance, for it is
|
||
what gives moving observers the correct value for relative velocity,
|
||
despite having slowed-down clocks and contracted measuring rods.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote16">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote16sym" href="#sdendnote16anc">xvi</a>Measuring
|
||
rods can also be used to time the others’ clock, by moving along
|
||
with the other clock and comparing it with what clocks should read
|
||
after traveling at the relative velocity, <i>v</i>, for a certain
|
||
distance on our frame. Again, the absolute observers’ measurement
|
||
is veridical, but the absolute clock seems slowed down to moving
|
||
observers because their measuring rods are contracted. And
|
||
mis-synchronizing clocks again plays a role in obtaining the correct
|
||
value for relative velocity.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote17">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote17sym" href="#sdendnote17anc">xvii</a>This
|
||
calculation of the effect of the mis-synchronization of moving
|
||
clocks on the moving observers measurements of the speed of absolute
|
||
clocks is also an interpretation of what is actually going on when
|
||
one derives a prediction from the Lorentz transformation equations
|
||
of what moving observers will find about absolute clocks. Assuming
|
||
that the primed variables, <i>t'</i> and <i>x'</i>, are those used
|
||
by the moving observers, then the Lorentz transformation equation by
|
||
which moving observers determine temporal coordinates in the
|
||
absolute frame for time is
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="StrEqTimeDer" align="bottom" width="78" height="38" border="0">.
|
||
But since the observers’ motion is <i>x' = VT</i>, this equation
|
||
becomes
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="StrEqTimeDil" align="bottom" width="79" height="38" border="0">.
|
||
The denominator represents the slowing down of moving clocks at the
|
||
usual rate; the numerator represents the result of moving backwards
|
||
past a series of mis-synchronized clocks, an effective speeding up
|
||
of clocks at the square of the usual rate; and so the partial
|
||
cancellation of the numerator by the denominator represents how they
|
||
give rise to the opposite appearance, an apparent slowing down of
|
||
the absolute clocks at the usual rate. This shows, at least, that
|
||
there are factors of the right size working in the right way to
|
||
produce the appearance.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western">In this case, the
|
||
deduction for moving observers happens to correspond to the cause of
|
||
the apparent distortion in the absolute frame, but the deduction
|
||
does not always corresponds to the cause of the observation. It
|
||
can’t because the deduction predicting time dilation is the same
|
||
on both sides of any pair of frames. But there is a more complete
|
||
symmetry among distortions involving opposite distortions on each
|
||
side, and one of the two kinds of deductions predicting them always
|
||
involves a mis-synchronization factor and the other does not,
|
||
suggesting there are always two ways that measurements of
|
||
distortions can be caused, namely, by real distortions and by the
|
||
appearance caused by mis-synchronization.
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote18">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote18sym" href="#sdendnote18anc">xviii</a>The
|
||
relative velocity of a third moving frame relative to the first
|
||
frame is given by Einstein’s formula for the addition of
|
||
velocities,
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="StrEqRelVPlus" align="bottom" width="70" height="28" border="0">,
|
||
where <i>v</i> is the velocity of the second frame relative to the
|
||
first and <i>w</i> is the velocity of the third frame relative to
|
||
the second. This formula is derived by using the Lorentz equations
|
||
to transform the second frame’s description of the motion of the
|
||
third frame into a first frame’s description. But if the second
|
||
frame is at absolute rest, this formula yields the apparent relative
|
||
velocity of two frames as a function of their absolute velocities:
|
||
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" name="StrEqRelVMinus" align="bottom" width="72" height="28" border="0">(since
|
||
<i>-v</i> is the absolute velocity of the first frame when <i>v</i>
|
||
is the velocity of the second frame relative to the first). This
|
||
formula for the “subtraction of velocities” describes how
|
||
observers on two frames moving through a third must appear to one
|
||
another. There is no reason for Newtonians not to use the Lorentz
|
||
transformation equations as an aid to calculation, since there is no
|
||
dispute about the predictions, only about the causes. The apparent
|
||
relative velocity is not, in general, the real relative velocity, <i>u
|
||
- w</i>, because the latter can approach twice the velocity of
|
||
light.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote19">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote19sym" href="#sdendnote19anc">xix</a>The
|
||
equation derived from the special theory of relativity describing
|
||
the quantitative equivalence between energy and mass, <i>E = mc</i><sup><i>2</i></sup>,
|
||
is the foundation for the principle of the conservation of mass and
|
||
energy which was used as the working hypothesis in the ontological
|
||
explanation of classical physics.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote20">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote20sym" href="#sdendnote20anc">xx</a><span lang="en-US">Newton
|
||
later suggested various mechanisms to account for gravitation. See
|
||
</span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Burtt"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Burtt</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1980, pp. 264ff).</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote21">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote21sym" href="#sdendnote21anc">xxi</a><span lang="en-US">This
|
||
equivalence can also be put mathematically, as </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Burtt"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Hoefer</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1996) does: “By taking one model <</span><span lang="en-US"><i>M,
|
||
g, T</i></span><span lang="en-US">> and applying a diffeomorphism
|
||
</span><span lang="en-US"><i>h</i></span><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(essentially, a permutation of the points in </span><span lang="en-US"><i>M</i></span><span lang="en-US">
|
||
satisfying certain restrictions), one can generate a ‘new’ model
|
||
of the theory <</span><span lang="en-US"><i>M, g, T</i></span><span lang="en-US">>
|
||
which is qualitatively identical, but which has the material
|
||
contents and the metric field distributed differently over the point
|
||
manifold of </span><span lang="en-US"><i>M</i></span><span lang="en-US">”
|
||
(7-8). </span>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote22">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote22sym" href="#sdendnote22anc">xxii</a><span lang="en-US">This
|
||
is the orthodox approach, represented by Michael </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Burtt"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Friedman</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1983), and John </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Burtt"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Earman</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1989). But Earman and John Norton use the “hole argument” to
|
||
raise doubts about the four-dimension­al manifold of points
|
||
being a substance are raised by the “hole argument”. See </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Burtt"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Earman
|
||
and Norton</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US"> (1987). But
|
||
spacetime substantivalism has its defenders, such as Hoefer (1996).
|
||
Though the spatiomaterialist theory does not need to answer the hole
|
||
argument to defend its substantivalism about space, it may be
|
||
relevant to mention that it sees the “hole argument” as an
|
||
artifact of the mathematical formulation of GTR. Instead of seeing
|
||
the models as different (locally) inertial frames used to assign
|
||
coordinates throughout the universe with a certain standard of
|
||
simultaneity, the hole argument interprets their observational
|
||
equivalence as a mere mathematical operation (a diffeomorphism; see
|
||
previous footnote), and that makes it possible to hold that there
|
||
can be “holes”, or regions where, in effect, different standards
|
||
of simultaneity hold. The spatiomaterialist ontological explanation
|
||
of the observational equivalence of different models of GTR will be
|
||
given at the end of this explanation of the general theory itself.</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote23">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote23sym" href="#sdendnote23anc">xxiii</a>The
|
||
inherent motion in space is rather well represented by light cones
|
||
in the familiar diagrams. Each light cone represents the range of
|
||
all possible Lorentz equivalent inertial frames at its location, and
|
||
the increased tipping of light cones in the direction of the center
|
||
of gravity at locations nearer and nearer to that center represents
|
||
the increasing velocity of the inherent motion itself. The “event
|
||
horizon” around a black hole is where they tip so far that even
|
||
the far side of the light cone is inclined toward the black hole.
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote24">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote24sym" href="#sdendnote24anc">xxiv</a><span lang="en-US">Compare
|
||
this with the spacetime explanation of </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Will"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Will</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1986, pp. 69-74). Will traces the light ray’s path through
|
||
spacetime by considering the series of free falling frames through
|
||
which it would pass. He recognizes that the Newtonian-like half of
|
||
the bending comes from a change in the angle of the light passing
|
||
through each frame due to the inward acceleration as it passed
|
||
through the previous frame. But in order to account for the other
|
||
half of the bending, he argues that there is a “curvature of
|
||
space” near gravitating bodies in which the number of measuring
|
||
rods needed to measure a line passing by the sun would be greater
|
||
than expected by triangulating the distance from outside the
|
||
gravitational field. Though Will does not explain why measuring rods
|
||
would be shrunken, spatiomaterialism would agree that free falling
|
||
rods momentarily at rest relative to absolute space would be
|
||
contracted, because they would be suffering a Lorentz length
|
||
contraction due to their constant velocity relative to the ether
|
||
(see page Error: Reference source not found). But that length
|
||
contraction is merely a symptom of their velocity relative to the
|
||
ether, and so the spatiomaterialist theory explains the other half
|
||
of the bending more directly. There is no need to suppose that space
|
||
itself is curved, only that the velocity of light in space is
|
||
altered. </span>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote25">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote25sym" href="#sdendnote25anc">xxv</a><span lang="en-US">This
|
||
is a much simpler explanation than spacetime curvature affords.
|
||
Compare with </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Will"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Will</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1986, pp. 112-119). </span>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote26">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote26sym" href="#sdendnote26anc">xxvi</a>Acceleration
|
||
in rectilinear motion causes an apparent time dilation whose rate
|
||
continues to change as the velocity difference between the clocks
|
||
continues to increase. A constant rate of apparent time dilation
|
||
caused by the Doppler effect can occur outside gravitation only when
|
||
the two clocks are located at the center and rim, respectively, of a
|
||
rotating disk and the acceleration of the rim clock space always
|
||
results in the two clocks having the same relative velocity in the
|
||
direction of the signals between them.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote27">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote27sym" href="#sdendnote27anc">xxvii</a>Though
|
||
the two kinds of time dilation both involve the acceleration of the
|
||
inherent motion due that constitutes the force of gravity, they
|
||
combine mathematically the same way as the Doppler effect and
|
||
Lorentz time dilation due to motion outside gravitation, or the
|
||
so-called “relativistic Doppler effect”.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote28">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote28sym" href="#sdendnote28anc">xxviii</a><span lang="en-US">See,
|
||
for example, </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Friedman"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Friedman</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1983) and John </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Friedman"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Earman</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1989).</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote29">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote29sym" href="#sdendnote29anc">xxix</a><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Friedman"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Friedman</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1983) argues that the four-dimensional continuously differentiable
|
||
manifold, </span><span lang="en-US"><i>M</i></span><span lang="en-US">,
|
||
itself is all that should be taken as “absolute” in the sense of
|
||
being a “geometrical structure that is fixed independently of the
|
||
events occurring within space-time” (65). That is the only
|
||
structure that spacetime has to have in order for the equations of
|
||
GTR to predict the gravitational trajectories of bits of matter
|
||
precisely (and provide the curved spacetime in which other laws of
|
||
physics hold). Focusing on the mathematics of GTR and the scientific
|
||
inference to the best efficient cause explanation, he does not
|
||
consider what structure spacetime must have to be adequate
|
||
ontologically and explain “real change”. That requires a further
|
||
structure about spacetime to be absolute, an “ontological
|
||
structure”, namely, the one in which spacetime consists of a
|
||
three-dimensional substance (containing bits of matter) and exists
|
||
only at the present moment.</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote30">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote30sym" href="#sdendnote30anc">xxx</a><span lang="en-US">See
|
||
</span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Cushing"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Cushing</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
and McMullin (1989) for discussions of this issue.</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote31">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote31sym" href="#sdendnote31anc">xxxi</a>Abner
|
||
Shimony (1989, p. 31) points out that many pairs tested for
|
||
correlation in Bell’s experiment are not detected and so a (local)
|
||
hidden variable could “not only determine passage or non-passage
|
||
or a particle through an analyzer but also detection or
|
||
non-detection.” This possibility is also recognized by Bohm (1993,
|
||
pp. 144-5).</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote32">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote32sym" href="#sdendnote32anc">xxxii</a>Fermi
|
||
postulated the neutrino as massless, and the only reasons for
|
||
thinking it has a mass at all is that makes it possible to fit them
|
||
into the current gauge theories of the basic forces more easily and
|
||
if they have a mass, it may mean that there is enough mass in the
|
||
universe for gravitation to cause a contraction, or at least, bring
|
||
the expansion to an end. Neither of these reasons carry any weight
|
||
on our approach, and thus, we assume that neutrinos are massless and
|
||
travel at the velocity of light.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote33">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote33sym" href="#sdendnote33anc">xxxiii</a>Talk
|
||
about free energy as the amount of information contained in systems
|
||
is not helpful, if not misleading. Information is sometimes equated
|
||
with free energy, as does D. Hawkins (1964), and others equate it
|
||
with entropy, as do D. R. Brooks and E. O. Wiley (1988).</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote34">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote34sym" href="#sdendnote34anc">xxxiv</a>Although
|
||
we are treating gravitation as a force of attraction which supplies
|
||
free energy, our ontological explanation of Einstein’s general
|
||
theory of relativity has an implication that might be mentioned.
|
||
Objects that have accelerated under the force of gravity are said to
|
||
acquire kinetic energy, but since they are actually being
|
||
accelerated with the acceleration of the ether, the potential energy
|
||
does not become kinetic matter (and photons) until they crash into
|
||
the center of gravity and join the thermodynamic flow of matter
|
||
toward evenly distributed heat.
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote35">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote35sym" href="#sdendnote35anc">xxxv</a><span lang="en-US">This
|
||
other aspect of the tendency of potential energy to become kinetic
|
||
energy is what </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Prigogine" target="_self"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Prigogine</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1980) and </span><a href="/F:/Philosophy/Existentialism/The%20Wholeness%20Of%20the%20World/www.twow.net/ObjText/#Prigogine"><font color="#0000ff"><span lang="en-US"><u>Kauffman</u></span></font></a><span lang="en-US">
|
||
(1993, 1995) and their followers are think of as the mysterious
|
||
phenomenon of “self-forming” or “self-organizing” objects.
|
||
See the discussion of the </span><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US">Second
|
||
law of thermodynamics </span></font><span lang="en-US">in
|
||
</span><font face="Arial, sans-serif"><span lang="en-US">Epistemological
|
||
philosophy of causation</span></font><span lang="en-US">.</span></p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="sdendnote36">
|
||
<p lang="en-US" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.25cm">
|
||
<a class="sdendnotesym" name="sdendnote36sym" href="#sdendnote36anc">xxxvi</a>When
|
||
they cool faster, crystals that form in different regions may fit
|
||
together irregularly as <i>amorphous crystals </i>or even form a
|
||
<i>glass </i>in which they are locked in bonds that are not as tight
|
||
and strong as they would be in a crystal.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
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